Agricultural Studies

The love bugs are known to be subjects of a long lived rumor that they came as a result of human tampering of the insect genomes. Though this is a worldwide held misconception, it is very convincing, as the flies are peculiar. Its discovery was as a result of the work of Hawaiian fly expert, D.E. Hardy, who was responsible for naming the species in the well known Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society (Berenbaum 45). Indeed, the Plecia nearctica, which is also known as the love bug is a unique insect as far as its reproduction and other factors pertaining to it are concerned.

Biology and Morphology
The love bug was initially discovered in Texas by a person referred to as D.E. Hardy in 1940. At the time of the discovery, Hardy reported that the flies had spread to other areas, especially in Louisiana and Texas. The love bug belongs to the Animalia kingdom and the Insecta class. It is classified as belong to the Diptera order and the Bibionoidea super family, and the Bibionidae family (Denmark and Mead, par.5-6).

Love bugs are described as small flying insects with a velvety and dull appearance, except for their thoraxes which are red in color.  Ordinarily, the males are usually a quarter inch long while the females are a third inch long. Additionally, the females and males also vary in size because the latter usually weighs six to ten milligrams while the former weighs between fifteen to twenty five milligrams. The difference between the weights of the females and the males is due to the fact that the females have got protein filled ovaries. Their thoraxes have dorsum roofs, and are extensively black. The head of this insect usually has an oral margin. The male genitalia are usually broad, and have a ventromedial flap and a shallow medical excavation. The female genitalia are strong and excavated (Denmark and Mead, par.5-6). There is no positive evidence as to whether the love bugs emit chemical pheromones during the process of copulation. However, the males have special ways of locating the females, as they use their auditory and visual cues (Demark  Mead, par.3)

Habitat and Food Sources
 A soil surface and partially decayed matter is a good habitat for the love bugs. This is because the decaying matter usually forms a thatch for the larvae and provides moisture. The moisture is important as it provides cool temperatures to the developing larvae. The larvae usually feed on the thatch as they develop so that they can pupate and access their way to flight once they become adults. Once they feed on the thatch, they convert it into organic compounds which add nutrients to the soil. It is common to find the love bugs in the southern parts of the globe due to higher temperatures in these regions, which aid in their survival. They are found in Europe and other parts of the Eastern hemisphere as the summer periods are usually long in these places (Denmark and Mead, par.8 -9).

Favored food sources of the love bug adults include clover blossoms and blackberry, which are known to grow during the month of May. Additionally, other composite blossoms plus the goldenrod are known to grow during the month of September, and are also important sources of food for the love bugs. This is because these plants produce nectar, which is a good source of food for the love bugs. The larvae are known to feed on the fallen leaves, animal manure, Spanish moss and accumulated decaying vegetation which is usually on the soil surface. The reason as to why they feed on these is so that they can pupate, and later develop into adults (Hertrick 26).

Damages and pest management
The love bugs are known to spatter on the windshields of the vehicles, as well as etch the automobile paint because their body fluids are slightly acidic. Their acidic nature is a biological characteristic. Therefore, the best way to manage the vehicles once they are affected by the love bugs is to soak with water for a few minutes and scrub for a period of fifteen to twenty minutes (Denmark and Mead 22). Love bugs are usually attracted to light-colored surfaces, which are freshly painted (Denmark  Mead, 24). Additionally, screens are usually added to doors and windows so as to form a block to their movements. This process is common in buildings where there are doors and windows that are placed in the windward side of the buildings. This is because the love bugs are usually blown by the wind towards the windward direction (Lepla).

The screens are also placed over the swimming pool decks, because the love bugs are attracted to clear surfaces like those of water. Severally, the pressure from fans and vacuum cleaners can be used outside recreational or work areas so as to ensure that the love bugs are kept away. It is virtually impossible to keep the love bugs away using repellents and poisonous insecticides due to their abundance and mobility (Lepla).

Myths of the Love Bugs
One myth states that the University of Florida has genetically engineered love bugs so as to kill mosquitoes. This is not true because the love bug only feeds on nectar, pollen and herbivorous insects that are present in flowers. Additionally, they have no mandibles, enough speed or grasping legs to make them suitable for preying on the mosquitoes. Therefore it is not possible for the love bugs to prey on the mosquitoes (Lepla).

The second myth associated with the love bugs is that they are attracted to automobiles. However, it is not the automobiles that they are attracted to, but the components of the automobile fumes found in diesel. These chemicals are referred to as heptaldehyde and formaldehyde. Additionally, the headlights from the automobiles attract the love bugs (Lepla).
 
Thirdly, it is believed that insecticides used to kill other insects can be used to control love bugs. However, several people do not use these insecticides in places where there are pets and humans, as they pose dangerous risks to them. All the same, this myth states that the reason as to why pesticides should be avoided is because in the process of killing them, other beneficial insects such as lace wings, honey bees and lady beetles are killed (Lepla).

Behavior and Reproduction Cycle
A study was conducted in1969 by experts in University of Florida regarding the flight of the love bugs. It was established that the flights of the love bugs reached an altitude of three hundred to four hundred and fifty meters. Additionally, they extended very many kilometers over the Mexican gulf and occupied over a fourth of the Florida land. The reason as to why the love bugs fly so high is to get the efficient light and ambient temperatures, which are normally above twenty eight degrees Celsius. The love bugs are usually active during summer and the spring season, when there are efficient temperatures for their survival (Denmark and Mead, par.15).

The love bugs are usually attracted to irradiated automobile exhaust fumes. This happens when the ultra violet light which is usually over the highway ranges between 0.3 to 0.4 microns. The Ultra violet light provides ideal temperatures for their survival. Once there are hot engines and automobile vibrations along the highways, the love bugs are normally attracted to them. These components, heptaldehyde and formaldehyde are found in diesel and gasoline, which are the most attractive components of the diesel as well as gasoline exhausts (Denmark and Mead, par.15).

The entire life of the love bug is spent while in copulation (mating). Thus, the love bugs always travel as couples. This is the reason as to why the Plecia nearctica is given the name love bug (Denmark and Mead, par.15). Research has revealed that females live for over one week, therefore can mate with more than a single male. On the other hand, the male only lives for less than three days. Mating usually occurs after a swarm of over forty males come from the emergence sites, where they oscillate down and up rhythmically especially on windy days. The swarms last for about ten to thirty minutes, and the males finally land so as to get rest (Hertrick 25).

Once the male adults emerge, they take flights over the locations. The females emerge after the males, and several males dive at the emerging females. Afterwards, copulation is usually effected as the flight continues. This happens until the male dies. This process takes a period of less than three days (Hertrick 25). The stronger and larger female is known to controlling the walking and flight activity of the tandem pair. The mating pairs usually rest during the night, especially on low- growing vegetation. After mating, the females lay grey and irregularly shaped eggs on or in the soil, which later develops into adult flies after passing through the larval and pupae stages (Hertrick 26).

Predators and Ecological Importance
 Plecia nearctica is very beneficial because in the larval stages, it assists in the decomposition of the vegetation into organic matter. Once the decaying matter is broken down, it releases organic compounds which act as manure to the soils. Therefore, they assist in making the soils fertile, which aids in crop growth. Additionally, the bugs are known to be very good feeders of nectar and pollen. As a result, they assist in the process of pollination (Denmark and Mead, par.17).

Unlike the other insects which are fed on by birds, lizards and toads, the dragon fly has got very few predators. These include spiders, birds and dragon flies. They are preyed on because of their velvety appearance, which is different from the other insects. However, these are the only known predators of the love bugs. Reports from the bee keepers have revealed that the bees never visit the flowers that have been infested with love bugs. This clearly reveals that there is no competition of nectar between the bees and the love bugs. Therefore, the bees cannot prey on the love bugs (Hertrick 26).

Sweet sorghum is the different type of sorghum which has high sugar content in them. Sweet sorghum will flourish under desiccant and heater conditions than many other crops and is primarily cultivated for pasturage, ensilage and sugar production.  The grain sorghum is used by the ethanol industry for the production of ethanol. The fermentation of sorghum for the production of ethanol, bio fuel is also produced under the same conditions.

Sweet sorghum is used for raising energy in the bio fuel factory. There are four genotypes used in this research which is the most important change as we came to know the different aspects of the conditions and there important features on the flourish factors. Sorghum is an edible cereal for the human beings. The grain is rich in protein, fat and vitamin A.

There are grass forms because of its vegetative appearance. This is a panicle with spike lets in pairs. They are self pollinated.  Fertilization occurs 6 to 12 hours later. The grain is lemma and palea and is removed during combining. The seed contains a variety of components like endosperm, embryo and seed coat. The plants should complete the bearing of excellent grains by the early August.

The idea temperature for the cultivation of sorghum is at 60  65oF. The characteristics of the plants are Sweet sorghum always goes for self pollination. The tillers get maturated over by several weeks and this makes it good in the production of heads over longer period.  The plant and temperature plays an important role in there life. When there I drought conditions then sorghum goes with high population and for the possible yielding. Sorghum foliage protest drying. The waxy leaves of sorghum helps in less lose of water content from it. Because of this the leaf shield appears to be sticky and frosty in appearance.  

The process of cultivation of sorghum is important as the use of fertilizers and the proper time when will the other products will working and implementation of different items are connected to it. Pods of four different sorghum genotypes produces 8- 9 ovules which have 14 ovules. The success of sorghum improvement depends on two essential Conditions Genotypic variability for Stover yield and quality is high enough to positively impact on farm fodder resources. Relations between desirable traits.

The efficiency of water content in the leaves and canopy of sweet sorghum was enquired to know the gains of the insights of the crop. The experiments were done only on the leaves and to know the canopy of the gas exchanged. The method which was used was Bowen ratio or the energy balance method which was carried out in the fields itself. The result was quite oblivious the ratio of carbon dioxide with that of ambient carbon dioxide was preserved within the range.

The vast diversity of sorghum can help in making of different types and usage of the sorghum for the multiple purposes. The genotypic capability of sweet sorghum genotypes for cane yield, juice yield, brix values and sugar content can be known. The experiment was placed with four genotypes which were replicated a number of times. The observation on fresh juice weight, percentage, juice extraction, and brix value was entered at flowering, grain filling and physiological maturity stages.

The grain yield was recorded at maturity. And the juice was extracted by the different methods brix reading was shown utilizing a hand refractometer. The content of non-reducing sugars differed significantly at all growth stages and it was highest at physiological maturity. The policy and planning for the utilization of ethanol and bio fuels which acts as energy sufficient and the promotion of related measures for the implementation and barriers of water lose and temperature on sweet sorghum. The treatment was randomized among the replicates.  The two factors were non significant as shown in the table. Sweet sorghum juice is extracted from the stem which is having highest green stalk yield. The adaptability of sorghum to any season is due to intrinsic strength that develops the stalwart sweet stalk which facilitates the supply of fermentable sugars.    Improving the operational scheming of breeding approach to quantitatively increase the juice yield and qualitatively the fermentation efficiency through increased sucrose content can help in meeting the requirement of the future generation of the energy required for us.

The important role of this sorghum is in the development of agricultural products, livestock husbandry, and energy, refining sugar, paper making and prevention against air pollution. The gist of sweet sorghum is not because of its seeds but because of its stalk which has high sugar content. This sweet sorghum has undergone many special conditions like drought, high temperature and the combination of both. The different variety of sorghum genotypes produces different types and the content of sugar does vary accordingly. Due to presence of sugar at different levels in the stalk thus this sorghum can be divided into two types  saccharin type and syrup type. The saccharin type of sorghum contains sucrose which produces purified crystal sugar while the syrup type sorghum contains glucose which produces sugar syrup.

The results of the Table listed below which gives the clear view of the growth and yield of the plant under the controlled environment and when subjected to the treatments gives different results and the under controlled temperature thy show the normal growth but when subjected to extra drought, heat or a combination of both there is the change in the nature of the plant and the brix, juice yield and many more features of the plant changes.

The material of syrup type sweet sorghum is used in making of wine and alcohols in the refinery. There many large characteristics which made it popular among many countries for its growth. They are wide adaptability, drought resistance, water lodging tolerance, saline alkali resistance, grows quickly, sugar compiling is rapid and there is a high yield of biomass. Thus the production of energy along with the production of  feed and fiber gives the crop a special place in the research. The challenges are faced by this crop is more as compared to other plants ad has always withstander the obstipated in its way.

High energy giving crop because the crop, it belongs to C4 crop family. It has high photosynthetic efficiency which grows quickly. The characters which it has for the physiological and anatomical functions are The compensation point of the concentration of C4 plants which has high saturation point. The photorespiration can almost not be measured. When the intensity of light is maximum then it can not reaches the saturation point. The photosynthetic capacity of C4 plant is more as compared to C3 plants. Sweet sorghum to transform sunlight into carbohydrate.

Wider range of adaptability has been noticed in sweet sorghum.  The pH value of the soil is found between 5 to 8.5. Thus the drought resistance condition is much higher as compared to other crops of its family. It has a special characteristic which is known as water lodging property. If the plant is grown in the flood season then after the flood is retreating the crop will immediately grow. The plant is seen growing in the areas of tropical, subtropical and temperate zones where temperature is above 10oC.

The vantages of sweet sorghum as a sugar crop The development period or the maturity phase is short, it can be harvested three times a year while it grows or last for only 8- 24 months. Sugarcane is usually propagated through stem, and is not at all easy to grown or sown it with machines. Sweet sorghum is propagated through seeds and can be easily sown with the help of machine.  The content of water needed for this crop is one third of the water content of sugarcane. The stem contains 18-24 fiber only burning a half of the remainder residue of the stem with an efficient boiler is enough to refine sugar constantly without other energy source. The treating season is longer than sugarcane. Thus the grains are used in the production of alcohol or edible wine with the help of brewery equipments in the winter season.

SWEETFUEL intends to develop bio-ethanol production in temperate and semi arid regions from sweet sorghum through genetic enhancement and improvement of cultural and harvest practices.
The demand of sweet sorghum is going to rise in the future as there will be increase in the temperature and the scarcity of rainfall can be easily noticed. This is its features as food. Now as fuel the cost of fuel and raw material will be rising in the near future. The consumption rate of petroleum is moving high and it is an unrenewable fuel. The contradiction between supply and demand of energy is getting more and more outstanding, especially in the rural area. Every country is looking forward for the new energy source. Thus the biomass helps in conduction of new energy fuel for the development of fuel be many countries. The utilization and growth of biomass for the production of ethanol and alcohol will be one of the most important ways. The sweet sorghum produces high yield of grains and provides raw material for the ideal crops.
The production of air pollution is being faced by every person today.

The gain of oil as a fuel is cheaper. The sweet sorghum is an energy giving crop so it has low sulphur content. The quantity of carbon dioxide produced is equal in both the cases which is growth of sweet sorghum and burning of the excretes by the burning of sweet sorghum as energy source. It holds superiority for reducing the pollution in the form of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide is kept on hold.
The bio ethanol produced from the crops is a critical feature of sweet sorghum for satisfying the energy demand of the transports. The achievement of bio ethanol manifests the proof of the concept of transferring the water limiting and temperate environment. Sweet sorghum is the only source for the fermented sugar or lignocelluloses which is the potential having the following advantages, like high water, nitrogen and radiation use

Efficiency which broadens the agro ecological adaptation and has a rich genetic diversity for the useful traits.
In the conclusion the result indicates that the sweet sorghum is much less sensitive to short periods of very high temperature than the wheat. The combination of drought and high temperature is more likely due to high temperature and the reduction in the weight of grain along with the increase in the screening percentage is observed in the fields. Thus sweet sorghum is a multi purpose plant which can be used as food, feed, fuel and the energy giving plants for the future needs.
Thats why many researches have been done on sweet sorghum that when time approaches its plantation can be easily done.

RESULT
Plant heights When the effect of temperature is on the plants height is that under the controlled temperature the maximum height growth is shown by Tray but the lowest is shown by Wray. In drought, high temperature and a combination of both the condition the same results are shown but in the drought and high temperature there is similar growth is shown by Awan and Smith.

EMBED MSGraph.Chart.8 s  
Leaf area the expansion of leaf was more for Tray in normal condition but this changed in drought condition in which Wray should the increase in the area of leaf and the same genotype showed the area expansion of the leaf under the conditions which are high temperature and a combination of both. 

Food is any substance eaten and has nutritional value for the body and it usually consists of plant or animal origin containing essential nutrients. Bread is a staple food prepared by cooking dough of flour, water and other desired ingredients. Bread has various methods of cooking which include steaming, frying and baking (Hensperger    80). It is until when the bread is fully cooked that it is safe to consume it. Bread also varies in many different ways depending on the country of origins baking methods, recipe, the size and how it is served on the table as a part of a certain meal. The history of bread dates back to the Neolithic era but rumor surrounding its creation is that it may have been invented accidentally or through intentional experimentation with wheat and flour. That first bread was made from grain paste made from ground grain and water is still a puzzle to this day. Later there was development to leavened bread where uncooked dough could be left to rest while being exposed to air before being cooked. After this struggle, a bread making method was introduced in 1961 and it was called Chorleywood bread process. Bread was also very important in religion, politics and in both social and economic ways. Up to date, it retains some of those significances for example in religion.

Ingredients and mixing
Even though bread comes in different categories the ingredients may differ a little but the methods of making it are rather the same (Hensperger    90). The basic or most important composition of bread is flour. While baking usually professional bakers use certain percentages of certain compositions. An example in point is bread from the United States where common table bread consists of a hundred percent flour that is more of a constant and approximately fifty percent water.

In addition, calcium proportionate of the four hundred and fifty grammes of flour is added to slow the growth of moulds. Wheat flour is the most common in bread and it is what usually makes the dough. The quality of dough usually is derived from the quantity of proteins in the flour (Hensperger    93). The more the protein the less the time taken to mix the dough hence less oxygenation that produces better bread. Water is also a commonly used liquid in the production of bread and the volume to be used depends on the type of recipe. Water is usually put in ratios of one part of liquid to three parts of flour, other types of liquids may be put for example wine, fruit juice or milk.

Leavening processes
Gas is added also to leaven the bread but not all dough undergoes because there are some people who prefer unleavened bread due to their religious beliefs. The use of unleavened bread is usually seen in the Catholic Church for Holy Communion and the Orthodox Church who always use the unleavened bread. Apart from putting some gas in the dough, gas-producing chemicals are also used for example self-rising flour, baking powder and chemicals like buttermilk and baking soda that also produce gas (Hensperger    290). Yeast is also another leavening agent and in countries like the United States professional bakers use commercially produced bakers yeast. Bakers yeast is preferred because it has uniform, quick and reliable results because it is got from a pure culture unlike other methods like using beer spices called the sourdough method. Other methods of leavening are steam leavening where the bread is exposed to steam but it is a rather unpredictable method. Bacterial leavening is also another method but it is not a consistent method although it has its advantages. Aeration is also a leavening method where the dough is put under pressure with carbon dioxide gas.

Fats and shortenings like vegetable oils and eggs can be also added and they give a good texture to the final product. Bread improvers can also be used and these are usually chemicals like protease, phosphates and ascorbic acid. These chemicals help in the leavening of bread just like the other methods discussed.

Baking
When it comes to baking the prepared dough after all the processes have taken place, it is mixed by hand or machine mixer. It is taken and put into desired shapes and sizes then put on a holding container where the baker may sprinkle some as sugar or any other desired ingredient and then transfer it into to the oven for cooking (Hensperger 341).

Packaging and distribution
After it is ready, it is taken out of the oven and it cools then issues like quality, taste and texture are tested then the bread is ready for packaging. The packing is either by hand or machine depending on the size of the bakery or how they choose it to be. After packaging, it is now ready for distribution. It is then distributed to nearby markets like shops, hotels and may be local distributors and then the one meant for export is appropriately taken to departure points. To conclude the process a consumer buys and feeds on the bread (Hensperger 430).

The maturity of sweet sorghum is subdivided into many stages. The sugar accumulation in the sweet sorghum stalk juice differs in each stage so it is difficult to know the optimum harvesting time. Many studies have already reported that sugar accumulation in the sweet sorghum stalk juice starts from booting stage. The sugar content in the sweet sorghum stalk increases between the milk stages and dough stages. It then starts to decline during the physiological maturity. Since no study has made a conclusion on the exact harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk where the sugar content is at the maximum, thus, the main core of this study is to determine the optimum harvesting time between the milk stage and physiological maturity where the sugar content of the sweet sorghum stalk is at the highest.

As the sweet sorghum approaches maturity, the stem juice composition and the quality of the stalk changes (Prasad et al, 2007, p.2418). As the sweet sorghum becomes mature, the sugar content of the stem juice increases and the stalk becomes bigger (Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2418). High amount of sugar can be found in its stem or stalk (Food and Agriculture Association, 2010 Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2417 Almodares et al, 2007, p. 424 Matei and Nicolescu, n.d., p.167 Woods 200 p.6). Sweet sorghum stems sugar content is mainly 70-80 saccharose and the rest are fructose and glucose (Food and Agriculture Association, 2010).
The sugar in the sweet sorghums stem or stalk can be obtained through the extraction of juice by means of milling (Tsuchihashi and Goto, 2004, p. 442). Sugar is expressed as degree Brix (Brix) and is measured through the use of Brix hydrometer or sugar refractometer (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2).

The different stages of maturity also affect the sugar content of sweet sorghums stem juice. The steps in the stages of maturity of the seed are early-flowering, flowering, late-flowering, early-milk, late-milk, soft-dough, hard-dough, and ripe (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2). 

Matei and Nicolescu (n.d., p.170) stated in their study that sugar starts to build up during the early stage of sweet sorghum development. At the beginning of the harvest, the sugar concentration in sweet sorghum s stem juice is approximately 12.5 Brix and as sweet sorghum reaches maturity the sugar concentration increases up to 17 Brix (Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2418).

Almodares et al (2007, p. 424) stated that during flowering, the sugar content is lowest. This mainly because of the presence of high acid invertase enzyme during the flowering stage (Almodares et al, 2007 p.424).
Hills (1990, p.14) reported that sugar concentration in sweet sorghums stalk juice starts to increase during the milk stage to the soft dough stage of the seed and then decreases as the seeds become more mature.
Also, Matei and Nicolescu (n.d., p.170) declared with experimental results that sugar content in sweet sorghum increases during milk maturity stage (14.29 grams100 ml juice) and decreases after the physiological maturity (13.67 grams100 ml. juice). Hunter and Anderson (1997, p.82) cited that sugar content of sweet sorghums stalk juice is almost double between the dough stage and physiological maturity compared to the sugar content  between the milk and dough stages.

Muminov (1997, p.353) stated in his study that at the beginning of the milky ripeness period, the monosaccharides and disaccharides in the sweet sorghum stalk juice continue to increase and the ratio of dry matter  to sweet sorghum stalk juice stabilizes. The high acidic characteristic of sweet sorghum stalk juice in the flowering stage remains in the milky ripeness period which is presented by Muminov (1997, p.353) as pH 3.2 and titratable acid of 4.7gliter tartaric acid. As the sweet sorghum reaches maturity, the acid declines while the sugar content increases. Beyond the full ripeness of the sorghum, the pH value and titratable acidity of the sweet sorghum stalk juice decreases to pH 5.4 and 2.4 gliter tartaric acid, respectively (Muminov, 1997, p.353).

Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2) devised a simple method in order to determine the maturity of the sweet sorghum. As per Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2), as the stalk reaches its full size, the seed heads also reaches its maturity, thus, by merely looking at the seed head, one can determine if the sweet sorghum plant is already matured.

Sweet sorghum stalks can be harvested within ten days after harvesting the grains but the total soluble sugar content expressed as Brix will only be 14 Brix to 20 Brix and the juice content will only be 48 to 50 (International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010). If the sweet sorghum is mainly cultivated for sugar and sorghum syrup, therefore, the stalk should be harvested without grains or 20 days prior to physiological maturity (International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010). By harvesting the stalk before physiological maturity, the total soluble sugar content will be 16 Brix to 23 Brix and the juice content will be approximately 55 to 60 International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010).

Prasad et al (2007, p.2418) and Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2) suggested that sweet sorghums should be harvested before maturity where the sugar content is approximately in the range of 15.5 Brix to 16.5 Brix Almodares et al (2007, p.424) reported that during physiological maturity and before chilling the sugar content is about 15.97 Brix. The findings of Almodares el al (2007) are in parallel with that of the findings of Prasad et al (2007). During physiological maturity, the high acid invertase enzymes which are present in the flowering stage are being replaced by the natural invertase enzymes that catalyze sugar production (Almodares et al, 2007, p. 424). Harvest time should not exceed the physiological maturity because the starch content of sweet sorghums stem juice increases beyond maturity (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2). The starch content increases during maturity because of the enzymes that are naturally present in sweet sorghum and other plants. These enzymes catalyze the conversion of sugar in the sweet sorghum stalk juice which is mainly composed of monosaccharides and disaccharides like glucose and fructose into a polysaccharide which is starch. Also, crystallization and gelling of sweet sorghum syrup might occur if the stalk will be harvested beyond maturity (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2).

Muminov (1997, p.354) suggested that sweet sorghum stalk should be harvested before the technological ripeness period and should be processed during the technological ripeness period if the sweet sorghum is cultivated for the purpose of obtaining edible concentrated glucose-fructose syrup.
But in a recent study by the Maryland researchers, delaying the harvest time of sweet sorghum by one month beyond the soft-dough stage gives beneficial effects in places with cool climate (Austin, 2010). Delayed harvest time resulted to decrease in biomass and juice volume but an increase in sugar content (Austin, 2010).

The time of harvesting and determination of maturity of sweet sorghum are very crucial in obtaining sweet sorghum with high sugar content. Since ethanol production also depends on sugar content, therefore knowing the right time of harvesting and determining maturity are also beneficial in obtaining high ethanol yield.
Again, the studies being mentioned didnt exactly gave the optimum harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk therefore, this study is made for the reason of determining the optimum harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk with the highest sugar content.

Perennial weeds are weeds which survive on, for subsequent years. Their shoots commonly arise from buds located at random along horizontal roots, and they commonly arise from buds located just above the bend as the horizontal root turns downward in contrast, lateral, roots normally arise from buds located just below the bend. Perennial weeds sprout from tubers, bulbs, rhizomes and modified stems.
Cardaria species e.g. Control of Hoary Cress
    
The extremely persistent reproductive roots, with abundant food reserves, are responsible for the survival and perennial nature of these species. Control by clean cultivation will require 3 consecutive years of intensive tillage to kill the root system of any of these Cardaria species. Cultivation should begin early in the spring when the plants are in the bud stage and repeated after every 21days, using a duckfoot cultivator set for 4 inches deep or other blade-type implement. The vertical roots disintegrate from the top down when decay starts following repeated cultivations (Anderson, 1999).
    
Late-sow crops, such as corn, barley, or beans are effective competitors. Perennial grasses or winter wheat, plus the use of 2, 4-D as a selective herbicide, are also effective control measures. Herbicides labelled for control of these Cardaria species include 2, 4-D and MCPA for use in croplands (e.g., small grains and sugarcane) amitrole-T (Amitrole) for use in woody ornamentals and non-crop areas metsulfuron-methyl (Escort) for use in pastures and rangelands chlorsulfuron (Telar) and sulfmeturon (Oust) and 2, 4-D for non croplands.
    
In conclusion, each of these herbicides is applied post-emergence to the Cardaria species Escort, Oust, and Telar are also effective as pre-emergence treatments. Others members of Cardaria species include Lens-podded White top and Globe-podded Whitetop.

The issue of obesity is discussed in the end of Fast Food Nation by Eric Schlosser, but would be reasonable to start essay with it. Every third child in the USA suffers from the overweight. The obesity has become the national pandemic. The book Fast Food nations discovers the origin of this problem mercilessly together with some other dangerous issues related to the nutrition in America.

The fast food nation
Chapter one of the book is the story about those people, who became the founders of fast-food culture. Most of them were self-made men who knew how important is to have a fast nutritive meal without stopping the work and made their career using this knowledge. The World War II was another indirect factor, which forced the development of fast-food culture. 

From the 1970 the number of women working full time constantly increases. The connection between the impossibility to cook at home, the restaurant nutrition and the disadvantages of fast-food cant be neglected. The fast food is so popular because it is in the great demand in the American society. However the dark side of fast food is really horrible.

First of all, fast food nutrition needs a great volume of the half-prepared food, which has to be kept for the indefinite time before it needed. The long keeping is possible under the deep frost, however the taste of this food disappears, and the food becomes tasteless. Thus, to make the fried potato other popular fast-food meal tasty, the producers add the artificial flavors to half-prepared ingredients.
However, the artificial flavors arent the main danger in the fast food. To reach the original taste of the fried potato, MacDonalds Corp uses the mixture of oils, which contains the huge amount of saturated fats. Saturated fats are harmful for the human body and cause overweight.
Another reason of overweight is the soft drinks. Due to the content of sugar it can be called liquid candies, and they are one of the main sources of junk calories. Besides overweight, soft drinks can cause allergic reactions and other disorders.

Thus, the frozen ingredients, artificial flavors, a lot of fat  and sugar are the disadvantages of fast-food, which cause the obesity and indigestion. But the fast food is harmful not only for individuals but for the society at all.
On the example of McDonalds chain the author explains some trends in society from the early 1970, which were called as McDonaldization of society. Every eighth American in one or other way was related to work in McDonalds. The power of big corporations including McDonalds is the mark of our times, but the big doesnt equal to good.

McDonalds is one on the biggest buyers of the meat in the country. The author devoted the whole two chapters to the work of slaughterhouses. The absence of sanitary, hard and dangerous work makes the work in slaughterhouses one of the worst in the country. Another question is can the meat from this slaughterhouses be healthy and useful, and the author answer is No

However the whole marketing industry works to convince people of the opposite. Most of he Americans not only believe the fast food is the good system of nutrition, but the USA popularizes the culture if fast food all over the world. The sad conclusion is the most countries of the world soon will face with the same problem as the United States including the obesity of population.

Of the total land area In Ireland, 64 is specifically used for Agricultural practice. Agriculture is categorized into three main types grazing, dairy farming and arable farming. Forestry takes 9.4 of the total land. The mild temperatures, high rainfall and fertile land in the country provide ideal conditions necessary for agriculture and despite the pattern of decline in the past two decades, agricultural activities still remain an important source of employment in rural and remote regions of the country. The drop in agricultural output from 16  of GDP in the year 1975 to 5  in 1998 shows only a relative decline  when measured against the steady increase in GDP which is driven by other sectors. Although the fall in prices of agricultural products has been drastic, the volume of output has only experienced a small decrease (Donnelan 2010, p. 3). As a result, the agricultural industry is suffering from overcapacity and falling incomes and its highly reliant on EU subsidies and fixed prices.

The number of small-scale farmers remains high for an industrialized country and most of them take up other forms of employment to subsidize their income. Even though the average farm size which is currently 29.5 hectares or 73 acres is progressively increasing, the Irish farmers association asserts that the farm size remains the single biggest hindrance to generating adequate income in the agricultural sector. After the last ice age in Ireland, very little forests remained and these were the dwarf birch and willow but as the weather warmed up, Scots pine and Birch developed. The cold climate caused the forest areas in Ireland to clear out and as a result, peat bogs developed leaving most of the land to be open as it is today. This essay will mainly explore the major factors affecting the development of agriculture and forestry in Ireland. In addition I will also talk about my opinion regarding the importance of the environment and rural development along with the production of agricultural products (Donnelan 2010, p. 3).

Factors affecting agricultural development in Ireland
Agriculture is an important industry in Ireland and currently, farmers make up to 7 of the workforce. When employment in inputs, processing and marketing is included, the agri-food sector accounts for almost 10 of the employment. Irish agriculture is primarily a grass-based industry whereby 80 of agricultural land is devoted to grass (hay, silage and pasture), 11 to rough grazing and 9  to crop production.  Beef and milk production account for close to 60 of agricultural output at producer prices (Donnellan 2010, p.2).
 According to report from the European Commission, the development of agriculture in Ireland has been affected by factors like those illustrated below

Increase in prices of agricultural land Since land is one of the factors of production in agriculture, an increase in the cost of agricultural land has made many people to shift focus from investing in agriculture to other better income generating projects like property development and road building. All this is a result of low income that is generated from practicing agriculture which is lower compared to the cost of land.

Climate change  Agricultural practice is interrelated to climate change. Therefore global warming is projected to have a significant effect on the conditions that affect agriculture in Ireland. Such conditions include temperature, carbon dioxide, glacial run-off, precipitation and an overall interaction of these elements. Formation of ice during winter seasons greatly affects the growth of crops due to the extreme cold temperatures which causes them to die off. In addition, such low temperatures can cause seed dormancy hence the newly planted crops may not germinate until the dormancy is broken.

Crop pests and diseases The magnitude of damage caused by pests and diseases on crops in Ireland is complicated because the direct effects on crop development are normally compounded by indirect adverse effects. Crop diseases reduce yields and competitiveness in crop production and their effects are largely unquantified. Similarly, there is reduced animal production especially when animal health is affected by diseases.

Arable land This is a term that is used to refer to land that can be used for growing crops. Although there are constraints by land mass and topology, the amount of arable land in Ireland has fluctuated due to human and climatic factors like irrigation, deforestation, desertification, terracing and land fill. All these factors highly affect crop production and as a result, agricultural development has been hindered.
Environmental pollution  In this case, the mismanagement of agricultural soils and their fertility often result in soil erosion, salinization and desertification. As a result of these, soil gets contaminated with chemicals and heavy metals which affect soil sustainability in the long run. Pollution of surface and ground water as a result of increased fertilizer utilization or high animal stocking densities are also detrimental to agricultural land. This has played a big role in hindering agricultural development (EC, 2005, p. 14).
Major factors affecting forestry in Ireland

In the past, Ireland was dominated by woodland but land clearance reduced the woodland cover to 1.4 immediately after the First World War. Currently, forestry covers about 6 of Northern Ireland and this only makes a small but valuable contribution to the rural economy.  The Irish Government is currently proposing to double the Irish forest estate from the current level of 9 of the land area by the year 2030. To achieve this, its important that the government develops regionally applicable forestry policies and strategies that can be used to a national scale instead of using the generic ones (OLeary 2000, p.39). Forestry development in Ireland is affected by several factors. The following are some of the major ones Forest fires  This is a common problem because in every spring in Ireland, there are several hundreds hectares of forests and woodland that are usually destroyed by fire. Currently, weather conditions show that there is an increased risk of forest fires which needs a keen attention of forest owners and the public. The areas facing greater risk are those around and within the moorland areas. In most cases, its the dry periods and seasonal high winds which aid in the creation of ideal conditions for wild fires to spread so fast through highly flammable moorland vegetation. Woodlands that are located in the path of such fires can be very easily destroyed and young forest crops are also particularly at the risk of fire (Bailey 2007, p. 1888).

Activities of man Man has largely contributed to the disappearance of forests in Ireland by clearing large areas of forest. The wood obtained from cutting down trees is used for many purposes like building of shelter and fuel. Studies have shown that the rate of forest clearance has gradually increased from Stone Age to the Iron Age.  Comparatively, history reveals that Ireland started experiencing the export of timber as far back as the 16th century. For example Barrel staves were being exported to England, Scotland, Holland, Spain and the Canary Islands (Bailey 2007, p. 1888).

Climate the cold climate in Ireland has largely contributed to the underdevelopment of forestry. Cold seasons especially winter makes some tree species to disappear leaving very few in survival. Pollen analysis at different weather seasons has shown a difference in the proportion of the various species although some are all weather species. Examples of such species include Oak, Ash, Elm, Alder and Willow.  Hot and dry seasons increase the water uptake by woodlands which restricts planting to take place in areas with limited water availability (Bailey 2007, p. 1890).

Pest and disease outbreak  This greatly affects the growth of trees and facilitates the extinction of some species. An illustration of this is the increasing impact of the green spruce aphid on commercial plantations of Sitka spruce (Archell, 2007, p. 9).

Forest culture  There is no discernable forest management culture in Ireland. This is mainly because most of the activities done in relation to forestry are grant driven hence people dont have an inborn urge to preserve forests. The fact that forestry is relatively low in Ireland is also an obvious reason as to why development in this sector is so sluggish.  Data from the National forest Inventory shows that 60 of the forest stock in Ireland is less than 20 years and that proper first thinning is quite essential. It is notable  that there is little emphasis on timber markets hence there is a need of changing peoples  mind set to understand that forestry is an investment which has several benefits to the country and people of Ireland as well (Food and agriculture Department 2000, p.8 ).
 My opinion as to why the environment and rural development are important, along with the production of agricultural commodities.

The word rural can be interpreted in so many ways but the general idea of understanding this term is the actions and initiatives that are taken in order to improve the standard of living in non-urban areas. In my opinion, rural development is an essential consideration because it helps to sustain the survival of people who live in rural areas. The fact that rural areas are usually very rich in agricultural produce due to fertile and unpolluted land implies that developing such areas is essential. If accomplished, it would play a big role in developing the agriculture industry in Ireland. Based on the fact that rural development is closely linked to social structure, it will involve the general balance between the rural regions and other areas of economic significance like energy, infrastructure and education. For instance, if the infrastructure in rural areas is well developed transportation of agricultural produce to urban areas or within Ireland will become more efficient and fast.

Environmental development is also considered to be very important in sustaining agriculture in Ireland. These calls for good Agri-environmental measures which are designed to encourage farmers to preserve the environment by preventing soil air and water pollution to increase their land produce. Land can be conserved by reducing the use of chemical fertilizers in growing crops. This enhances the survival of flora and fauna. Water quality may be can be protected by use of measures that reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Similarly, production of agricultural products is of great benefit to Ireland. This is because the export of   main products is essential in boosting the economy through exports. The contribution Agriculture to the Irish economy may be twice that of the European Union average hence the agricultural food exports may account for a big percentage of the total foreign earnings. The   large exports of beef, sheep, pigs and dairy animals make Ireland to be among the largest exporters in the world which is important in stabilization of the countrys economy.

In conclusion, agriculture and forestry in Ireland should be recovered by addressing the main factors that are hindering development of these specific areas.  Some of the factors have been discussed in this essay and with proper planning and implementation of good farming practices, this problem can be overcome. Farmers should be well paid for their products in order to motivate them in practicing agriculture despite the various challenges they encounter. In addition, they can also be rewarded to engage in Good Farming Practices (GFP) that will promote environmental conservation for sustainable agriculture in Ireland. Citizens of Ireland should be educated on the importance of conservation of forests and discourage them from engaging in activities that may lead to desertification.

The maturity of sweet sorghum is subdivided into many stages. The sugar accumulation in the sweet sorghum stalk juice differs in each stage so it is difficult to know the optimum harvesting time. Many studies have already reported that sugar accumulation in the sweet sorghum stalk juice starts from booting stage. The sugar content in the sweet sorghum stalk increases between the milk stages and dough stages. It then starts to decline during the physiological maturity. Since no study has made a conclusion on the exact harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk where the sugar content is at the maximum, thus, the main core of this study is to determine the optimum harvesting time between the milk stage and physiological maturity where the sugar content of the sweet sorghum stalk is at the highest.

As the sweet sorghum approaches maturity, the stem juice composition and the quality of the stalk changes (Prasad et al, 2007, p.2418). As the sweet sorghum becomes mature, the sugar content of the stem juice increases and the stalk becomes bigger (Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2418). High amount of sugar can be found in its stem or stalk (Food and Agriculture Association, 2010 Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2417 Almodares et al, 2007, p. 424 Matei and Nicolescu, n.d., p.167 Woods 200 p.6). Sweet sorghum stems sugar content is mainly 70-80 saccharose and the rest are fructose and glucose (Food and Agriculture Association, 2010).
The sugar in the sweet sorghums stem or stalk can be obtained through the extraction of juice by means of milling (Tsuchihashi and Goto, 2004, p. 442). Sugar is expressed as degree Brix (Brix) and is measured through the use of Brix hydrometer or sugar refractometer (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2).

The different stages of maturity also affect the sugar content of sweet sorghums stem juice. The steps in the stages of maturity of the seed are early-flowering, flowering, late-flowering, early-milk, late-milk, soft-dough, hard-dough, and ripe (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2). 

Matei and Nicolescu (n.d., p.170) stated in their study that sugar starts to build up during the early stage of sweet sorghum development. At the beginning of the harvest, the sugar concentration in sweet sorghum s stem juice is approximately 12.5 Brix and as sweet sorghum reaches maturity the sugar concentration increases up to 17 Brix (Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2418).

Almodares et al (2007, p. 424) stated that during flowering, the sugar content is lowest. This mainly because of the presence of high acid invertase enzyme during the flowering stage (Almodares et al, 2007 p.424).
Hills (1990, p.14) reported that sugar concentration in sweet sorghums stalk juice starts to increase during the milk stage to the soft dough stage of the seed and then decreases as the seeds become more mature.
Also, Matei and Nicolescu (n.d., p.170) declared with experimental results that sugar content in sweet sorghum increases during milk maturity stage (14.29 grams100 ml juice) and decreases after the physiological maturity (13.67 grams100 ml. juice). Hunter and Anderson (1997, p.82) cited that sugar content of sweet sorghums stalk juice is almost double between the dough stage and physiological maturity compared to the sugar content  between the milk and dough stages.

Muminov (1997, p.353) stated in his study that at the beginning of the milky ripeness period, the monosaccharides and disaccharides in the sweet sorghum stalk juice continue to increase and the ratio of dry matter  to sweet sorghum stalk juice stabilizes. The high acidic characteristic of sweet sorghum stalk juice in the flowering stage remains in the milky ripeness period which is presented by Muminov (1997, p.353) as pH 3.2 and titratable acid of 4.7gliter tartaric acid. As the sweet sorghum reaches maturity, the acid declines while the sugar content increases. Beyond the full ripeness of the sorghum, the pH value and titratable acidity of the sweet sorghum stalk juice decreases to pH 5.4 and 2.4 gliter tartaric acid, respectively (Muminov, 1997, p.353).

Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2) devised a simple method in order to determine the maturity of the sweet sorghum. As per Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2), as the stalk reaches its full size, the seed heads also reaches its maturity, thus, by merely looking at the seed head, one can determine if the sweet sorghum plant is already matured.

Sweet sorghum stalks can be harvested within ten days after harvesting the grains but the total soluble sugar content expressed as Brix will only be 14 Brix to 20 Brix and the juice content will only be 48 to 50 (International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010). If the sweet sorghum is mainly cultivated for sugar and sorghum syrup, therefore, the stalk should be harvested without grains or 20 days prior to physiological maturity (International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010). By harvesting the stalk before physiological maturity, the total soluble sugar content will be 16 Brix to 23 Brix and the juice content will be approximately 55 to 60 International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010).

Prasad et al (2007, p.2418) and Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2) suggested that sweet sorghums should be harvested before maturity where the sugar content is approximately in the range of 15.5 Brix to 16.5 Brix Almodares et al (2007, p.424) reported that during physiological maturity and before chilling the sugar content is about 15.97 Brix. The findings of Almodares el al (2007) are in parallel with that of the findings of Prasad et al (2007). During physiological maturity, the high acid invertase enzymes which are present in the flowering stage are being replaced by the natural invertase enzymes that catalyze sugar production (Almodares et al, 2007, p. 424). Harvest time should not exceed the physiological maturity because the starch content of sweet sorghums stem juice increases beyond maturity (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2). The starch content increases during maturity because of the enzymes that are naturally present in sweet sorghum and other plants. These enzymes catalyze the conversion of sugar in the sweet sorghum stalk juice which is mainly composed of monosaccharides and disaccharides like glucose and fructose into a polysaccharide which is starch. Also, crystallization and gelling of sweet sorghum syrup might occur if the stalk will be harvested beyond maturity (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2).

Muminov (1997, p.354) suggested that sweet sorghum stalk should be harvested before the technological ripeness period and should be processed during the technological ripeness period if the sweet sorghum is cultivated for the purpose of obtaining edible concentrated glucose-fructose syrup.
But in a recent study by the Maryland researchers, delaying the harvest time of sweet sorghum by one month beyond the soft-dough stage gives beneficial effects in places with cool climate (Austin, 2010). Delayed harvest time resulted to decrease in biomass and juice volume but an increase in sugar content (Austin, 2010).

The time of harvesting and determination of maturity of sweet sorghum are very crucial in obtaining sweet sorghum with high sugar content. Since ethanol production also depends on sugar content, therefore knowing the right time of harvesting and determining maturity are also beneficial in obtaining high ethanol yield.
Again, the studies being mentioned didnt exactly gave the optimum harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk therefore, this study is made for the reason of determining the optimum harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk with the highest sugar content.

Following are the growth and yield traits (Brix, Juice yield, stem fresh weight, total fresh biomass, sugar yield, total dry biomass, and harvest index) against the different stages of sorghum during its development and growth. The most important are the three stages milk stage, soft dough stage, hard dough stage.

Most important yield figures are seen during these three stages only. During the Milk stage Brix obtained is 14.7b, with little changes its 15.1cb at soft dough stage. Another entity juice yield at milk stage is 39.2ba followed by 39.9ba soft dough stage and considerable volume of 41.8a at hard dough stage further declines. Stem fresh weight shows good sum of 75.ba at soft dough state and good increase of 78.8a at hard dough stage further declines. This concludes here that stem fresh weight is good at hard dough stage. Volume of total fresh biomass is only good at hard dough stage of 95.0a and considerable of 90.9ba at soft dough stage.

The most important sugar yield is can be seen at all three stages but very good at hard dough stage of 6.9a and at milking stage 5.7a and repidely declines with maturity. Total dry biomass is again the entity that is observed to be good sanding at hard dough stage with sum of 17.7ba if compared with milk stage and soft dough stage and again 17.45ba at post Physiological maturity. Harvest index has different story to tell as its ratio is 36.6a i.e. highest at milking stage as compared with hard dough stage which is 35.6a. This Growth and Yield stage shows that the hard dough stage is the best time to harvest. It can be seen if considering the bio chemical traits to decide the harvest time for sorghum sweet and the results are following the result goes into the favour of hard dough stage. The extractable juice is highest at hard dough stage with figure of 53.2a.

Total sugar also is highest at hard dough stage of 23.7a and rapidly declines as maturity stage increases.  Starch obtained at hard dough stage is 20.8d and is highest among all stages of sorghum sweet lifespan. Juice purity is most important and this purity is at its best during the hard dough stage i.e. 81.3a as compared with milk stage (41.1ed) and soft dough stage (64.5b)

Farm management is described by West Virginia University as the collective learnt skills that enable the manager of a farm to arrive at informed decisions (para. 1). The decisions made by a farm manager lead to the implementation of changes that aim at making the farms operations fulfill its goals and expectations. A farms success may be measured against the quality and timely adequacy of the decisions made by the manager based on the quality of information. This has an ability of reflecting on the quality and quantity of produce the farm achieves.

For this Farm Management report, I chose Corn production as the crop of choice as it is a widely grown produce that has the potential to make a good return. The decision to grow corn was arrived at after evaluating the conditions necessary for the growth of corn which revealed climatic conditions that are not too demanding to the at times unpredictable weather. An added advantage of a limited requirement of workforce and care for the plant growth made growing corn a more profiting venture to indulge in. I also located my 192 acre farm in Iowa which is a region that suits the growth of corn hence has been the biggest producer of corn in the US in the past 14 years (Iowa Corn, para. 4).

According to the US environmental protection Agency, the US is the largest corn producer in the world (para. 1) with farmers producing approximately 100 billion in corn every year. Grown in over 400,000 farms, the US was responsible for the production of almost 10million bushels of corn out of the 23 billion bushel crop the world relies on annually. A quarter of the corn harvested from the US is used for grain in the country while that grown for silage make up an extra two percent which can be translated to six million acres. The percentage of land cultivated for silage varies as growing conditions change which might lead to corn plantations being salvaged for silage in poor weathers that affect the growth of the crop (para. 1).

Uses of corn
The Nebraska Corn Board reports that there are currently over 3,500 uses for corm ranging from the manufacture of aspirin, disposable diapers, and latex paint to shaving cream (para. 1). The board however describes main corn use in the US as for animal and human food and also export. The Environmental protection Agency writes of a report by the nations National Corn Growers Association which reflects that approximately eighty percent of the corn grown in the country is consumed by livestock, with the rest fed to fish and poultry either locally or overseas. The crop is also fed in the form of ground grain, high moisture, silage or enriching corn oil. Another approximated 12 of corn grown in the US is used in foods directly as corn chips or indirectly in the form of high content fructose corn syrup. A wide variety of its industrial use also includes the manufacture of ethanol which is a popularly used oxygenate in the production of burning automobile fuels. The extensive use of corn within and outside America makes it a preferable crop as the market is assured and in case of any poor bad weather affecting the crop, it can be salvaged for use in silage hence preventing huge losses that would be otherwise incurred.
Farm Management Practices for the Growth of Corn
   
Research by North Dakota State University reveals that changes in technology, export markets, farm policies and environmental rules and regulations have increasingly created the need for corn farms to have keen planning and management in order to secure maximum yields that fetch a high profit (para. 1). The agricultural department adds that weather changes, varied rain amounts and soil conditions may call for corn growers to implement specific systems in tillage, soil preparation, strategies in weed control, fertility management disease and pest control practices. These aspects will act as the key managerial responsibility in the corn farm to ensure quality corn is harvested that ensures high profit is realized.
  
 It is evident that the timely decisions made by management in corn farms such as purchasing disease free seeds, practicing crop hygiene, crop rotation, good spray management and using disease resistant methods determine the success of production especially in the big farm to ensure quality and quantity of the produce. It is important that farm management go by the rules and regulations set aside by the federal label clearance when buying products such as seeds, pesticides and other farm products. Other contributions by reliable research bodies to comply with the relevance practices and rules applied in the growth of corn should be sought to ensure state of the art technologies and procedures are followed that ensure maximum profits. This is further emphasized by the fact that some pests and diseases affecting grains become resistance with time hence current means of combating them should be applied where possible. APSnet suggests the use of disease resistant seeds would help deal with the problem (Munkvold and Hellmich, para 1). The farm will invest in seeds that are resistant to diseases and pests to ensure diseases do not take over.

Conditions Necessary for the Growth of Corn
    Knowledge in the stages of growth for corn helps growers to time the field operations properly so as to take advantage of opportunity windows. McWilliams, Berglund, and Endres explain that proper timing for fertilizer application, cultivation, irrigation and pest control can improve yields significantly (para. 1). Poor timing of these activities would imply bad crop development and in bad cases huge losses incurred. The writers also insist on the need of farm managers to have extensive knowledge on the different plant growth processes as it would lead to the innovation of means that lead to an enhancement of the crop growth.  As the proprietor, I intend to hire a well trained manager with adequate knowledge on farm operations while at the same time trying to seek information on the many farm practices that surround growing corn. By having an ability to detect plant symptoms of deficiency in different stages, the farm manager would be in a good position to determine a possible cause and an effective measure to curb the problem (para. 2). Growth of corn needs specific climatic and soil conditions to ensure a good yield.

Due to changes in climate owing to global warming and varied soil needs, these conditions may change from season to season. Owing to this reason, conditions in the farm can be boosted to ensure that the crop grows under the best possible environment that will ensure maximum yield. As documented in the Corn Production Guide by North Dakota State University, corn requires 18-22 inches of soil moisture to achieve a maximum potential in growth (para. 1). Through tilling the land enough to ensure adequate depth and texture is achieved, the soil function ability would be ensured. Irrigation is the best option for supplementing rain which is a solution to maintaining soil moisture that is which needed for corn growth. In the presence of adequate soil moisture, corn has the capability of producing about 8-14 bushels of grain and a relative 1.25-1.75 tons of fodder for every inch of additional water supplied (North Dakota State University, para. 1). Despite Iowa displaying the ability to grow corn, irrigation has always been used to achieve good and controlled levels of soil moisture (Williamson, pp. 2).

The North Dakota State University explains that the maturity length of corn affects the rate of water usage. In a typical growing season, water use by a 90 day corn will significantly exceed that of an 80 day old corn (para. 1). In this light, the varied maturity length taken by corn affects the levels of seasonal water use. Consequently, the amount and frequency of irrigation conducted on a water plantation depends on the growth rate and growth stage of the corn which in turn is determined by water holding capacity of the soil and the existing weather condition. This calls for the implementation of an irrigation system that is implemented based on the need of water by the corn within the farm.

Corn is seen to be a deep rooted crop. The North Dakota State University reports that in relatively deep soils, corn roots will reach up to 18 inches from the stalk and an added 4 inches deep. About 90 of the roots are found at the top 3 feet and is considered an effective depth for the purposes of irrigation (para. 3). It is reported that about 40 of the moisture used by the plants is derived from the first one foot of soil, 30 from the next foot and 20 from the third foot. The soil below three feet is accountable for less than ten percentage of water used by the crop. Soil texture, depth in addition to its water holding capacity has great influences on the amount and frequency of irrigation necessary (para. 5). It is important to have a soil profile that is up to the field capacity during planting. Initially, this may be made possible owing to the natural effect of winter snow and the rainfalls of spring to enhance root development in the later seasons. As a result, the soil will need to be tilled to a point where it acquires the required depth and texture before planting.
 Corn is considered as relatively resistant to drought (North Dakota State University, para. 7) and can survive moisture depletion in the soil up to 60. Blister Kernel development has ensured the growth of corn with such high water deletion levels without affecting the yield. Research shows that application of lesser irrigation water to corn frequently bears better results than the application of large amounts often, a factor that will be considered.

Planting Corn
Proper cultivating tools vary depending on soil type, crop to be cultivated, weeds and the depth that is aimed at being achieved. Proper cultivation for the growth of corn requires the use of Flex-tine harrows which plough both over and between crop rows. Their efficiency is added by the fact that they can be used in the event of repeated harrowing to prevent newly germinating weeds from chocking the crop. Crop rotation will also be practiced to ensure the success of this crop which makes the soil prone to bearing the best results (University of Connecticut, para. 2). According to Iowa State University, seed rates evaluation done in 2006 indicated that planting 25,000-45,000 seeds per acre would result in a good yield (para. 2). The institution also added that the location of the farm and surrounding vegetative conditions in relation to pollination contributes highly to the status of the yield. The environment and the condition of the field should therefore be considered before making decisions on seed rate to ensure high yields. The existence of many corn farms in Iowa is an advantage to the farm as the yields success is more or less predetermined.
Fertilization is an important aspect to consider so as to ensure good yield in fields that have low nutrient levels. Rehm, et al. of the University of Minnesota account that corn requires a good amount of nitrogen in the soil to flourish. They add that technological advancement has seen practices such as weed and pest control shift focus away from nitrogen rates to parasite elimination (para. 6). From soil tests conducted prior to planting, addition of fertilizers will be determined.

The productivity of the soil is the biggest determinant of levels of nitrogen and the need to add more of it to the soil. Soil tests conducted to determine the levels of nitrogen before planting will guide the farms management in deciding whether or not to increase the amount through administering nitrogenous fertilizers. Such fertilizers include diammonium phosphate which has the ability to suppress pests and diseases and also trigger early maturity in corn (North Carolina State University, para. 10). Corn can be affected by pests such as false wireworms, wireworms, cutworms, army worms and black beetles (Government of Australia, para. 76). These pests and diseases can be combated through administering pesticides that are readily available in the market.

Harvesting and Estimating Corn Yields
Harvesting of corn is done once the ears are completely filled out in the case of sweet corn and until the ears are brown and dry in the case of dry corn (National Gardening, para. 3). Machines are used to separate the corn from the cob in the case of large scale production. Large scale harvesting is done using a header, a machine that removes the maize leaving the stalks standing (Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations, para. 22). The stalks can be cut and sold fro use in different industries. This form of harvesting makes covering such a huge volume of land easy and saves time. After harvesting and processing, disease and pest control methods are administered to ensure the harvest is not destroyed while in storage awaiting consumption or sale. Owing to the changes in different pesticides and insecticides due to resistance, only the best and most effective brands will be recommended for use.

The North Dakota University suggests several methods in calculating the estimate of yield expected by corn growers prior to harvests. A more reliable version developed by the University of Illinois which is the most commonly used necessitates the use of a numerical kernel weight in calculating the amount of grain expected. Due to the variance in weight per kernel based on the differences in environmental factors and crop breed, the equation is rendered as being an estimate to relative yield of the grain. As a result, yields would probably be overestimated in poor yield seasons and an underestimation expected in a high yield season. This method of estimate will be used to be able to predict the expected yield and also make future plans for improvement.

Cost of Growing Corn
The Ontario Corn Growers Association claims that drying is not necessary for high moisture corn otherwise known as whole plant silage (para. 1). The association also claims that costs per acre for harvesting and storing whole plant silage is relatively high. Owing to this, the farm will in the first seasons refrain from drying the crop hence avoid unnecessary costs. Increase in corn yields also increases per acre costs of fertilizers and other materials used in the process and also drying the produce and trucking. The farm management will charge itself with all activities that aim at increasing yields of quality. Other production costs remain constant with the exclusion of land whose rate of renting varies with time. Rental of land in areas where yields are higher than the provincial yields is usually higher than in areas with low yields. To make good profits, growers are more likely to maintain a low per acrebushel cost of production through reducing tillage costs, application of nitrogen fertilizer, costs of fertilizer application and drying expenses (para. 2). Renting land wont be a problem to the farm as the 192 acres are already bought, offering a good platform for production of the crop. With time, the management may decide to boost the farms profits through marketing.

Corn Growth is increasingly showing great potential in the market and also industries due to its many uses within America and the rest of the world. The market share is also expected to increase due to its diverse use and increasing demand in the market. The quick growth of the crop and a relative good return weighed against the few requirements for its growth which can be fully mechanized, make it a more preferable crop to be grown. Improvement in farm management skills, increasing the density of planting and methods in areas of pest and disease control, and other methods will ensure the yields increase, and more profits would be realized.

Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is an important bio-energy crop, and mostly it is grown for syrup and ethanol production. In sweet sorghum, sugar concentration increases at certain growth stage and drops down at maturity. As the crop matures, changes in the volume and composition of the juice influence the sugar yield, since the sugar content usually continues to increase as maturity approaches, the best harvest time in sweet sorghum is the most critical in getting higher sugar and juice yields.

A field experiment was conducted during 2009 to study the effect of different harvest time on sugar and juice yield of sweet sorghum. Sweet sorghum variety M81E was harvested at ten growth stages initially at flag leaf stage, boot, panicle emergence, anthesis and post-anthesis followed by milk, soft dough and hard dough stage and finally the maturity stages. The physiological parameters like chlorophyll SPAD readings, leaf temperature, stem temperature and FvFm ratio were measured before each harvest. Growth and yield parameters like plant height, stem girth, brix,  juice yield, sugar yield, total dry biomass, grain yield and juice quality characteristics were recorded after harvest.

The results showed the effect of harvesting stage on brix, sugar yield, juice yield, juice purity,  total sugars, and non-reducing sugars were significant. The results show that highest brix ()  was obtained when plants were harvested at post physiological maturity.   On the other hand,  sugar yield was significantly highest when plants were harvested at hard dough stage but  the difference was comparable with early harvests either at milk stage or soft dough stage of the crop. Juice yield (kL ha-1) was highest  when harvesting was done during the  hard  dough stage, although the magnitude of increase was comparable to those plants harvested  from the milk stage  and soft dough stage. Juice purity (), total sugars (wv), and non-reducing sugars (wv) were significantly highest among plants harvested at hard dough stage .  Based on the results,  harvesting  the plants at hard dough stage gave the highest juice purity(), total sugars (wv), and non-reducing sugars(wv).  High sugar yield(t ha-1) and juice yield (kL ha-1 ) are obtainable from plants harvested  at milk stage to hard dough stage.  Late harvest at post physiological maturity produced the highest brix ().

Plant height
Plant height (cm) of sorghum  steadily increased from the youngest stage (flag leaf stage)  to  the oldest stage (post physiological maturity).  Tallest plant  of 388.9 cm was noted at late harvest or post physiological maturity but this height did not  significantly vary with the heights at soft dough until the physiological maturity stages.    Highest percentage increase of 1.59 was noted between the panicle emergence and anthesis or flowering stage.   The lowest plant of 249 cm was noted  at the youngest stage (flag leaf stage) of the plant.     The highest height increase of  25.94 was noted between flag leaf stage and boot stage.

Number of leaves per plant
 The periodic increase in number of leaves per plant show an upward trend up to  milk stage after which the value declined with the lowest of 10.8 obtained at physiological maturity.  The most number of leaves was 15.1 on the average and obtained at milk stage harvest and this value was significantly the highest among all other values obtained at various stages of harvests.  The highest percentage increase of 7.03 percent  was noted during the boot stage  harvest.  Beyond the milk stage, the number of leaves decreased at a magnitude ranging from 9.3 at soft dough stage  to 11.67 at physiological maturity which indicated that the plant is way past maturity and had already reached the stage of senescence.

Number of internodes per plant
 The number of internodes per sorghum plant  increased from flag leaf stage (11.1) to  milk stage  (15.1) after which decline was noted until physiological maturity.  The number of internodes per plant at milk stage did not significantly vary with those at post anthesis stage (14.8).  Both values varied significantly with the number of internodes per plant obtained at all other stages of plant growth.   Just like any vegetative growth stage,  highest percentage increase of  19.82  in the number of internodes per plant was noted during the boot stage and  decrease of  9.27  noted between milk stage to soft dough stage.   

Leaf area (cm)
 The leaf area (cm) of sorghum for ten harvesting stages,  gradually increased from flag leaf  (4141.6cm)  until  post anthesis stage (5074.6cm) where the maximum leaf area was obtained until it declined  to  the lowest value of  4017.8 at soft dough stage.   The increase in leaf area at post anthesis stage did not significantly differed with those  obtained when plants were harvested either at anthesis  or soft dough stages.  There was  no longer recorded  leaf areas from hard dough stage to post physiological maturity stage.   The highest increase in leaf area (cm) was obtained from panicle emergence stage to anthesis stage at 11.64 which are critical reproductive stages. 
3rd Internode Girth (cm)
   
The third internode girth  steadily increased with harvests at the youngest stage of flag leaf stage  until  the oldest stage at physiological maturity.  The  3rd internode girth value of 16.8 cm  was lowest at flag leaf stage  and  highest (20.6)  at  physiological maturity.  However,  the 3rd internode girth values when plants were harvested at milk, soft dough, hard dough and physiological maturity did not significantly differ.  The highest percentage of 3rd internode girth measurement increase in cm  of 5.88 was recorded  during the milk stage harvest. The slight increases from the value noted at soft dough (3.0), hard dough (0.49),  and  physiological maturity (1.5)  stages explained why 3rd internode girth (cm) were comparable at this stages.    

6th internode girth (cm)
 The 6th internode girth (cm)  also increases with harvesting at the youngest stage of plant growth (flag leaf  stage)  until  the oldest (physiological maturity)  where significantly the highest value of 16.4 cm was obtained.   The smallest 6th internode girth of  13.9 cm was obtained at flag leaf harvest.  The highest 6th internode girth increase of 6.4 was noted between the hard dough stage and physiological maturity stage harvests.    From flag leaf stage, the 6th internode girth increased by 5.8  at boot stage harvest with added 1.4 and 2.7 during harvests at panicle emergence and anthesis.  An additional 5.9 gain in 6th internode girth was obtained during the post anthesis harvest and another 1.9 for milk stage harvest. 

9th internode girth (cm)
The 9th internode girth (cm) ranged from 12.2  for early harvest at  flag leaf stage to 15.9 when harvesting was done at the latest stage of physiological maturity.  The 9th internode girth (cm) of plants harvested during physiological maturity was significantly the biggest.  The highest increase in 9th internode girth of 6.3 percent was noted between panicle emergence and anthesis and another 5.5 between hard dough stage to physiological maturity.

Average internode girth (cm)
The average internode girth (cm)  range  from 14.3 cm for the harvest at  the youngest or flag leaf stage and 18.3 cm upon harvesting at physiological maturity with steady increases noted  when harvesting was done at all stages of plant growth.  The average internode girth (cm) at post physiological maturity was significantly the biggest.  The data further revealed a gain of 4.2  in the average internode girth (cm) if harvesting is done at  boot stage rather than at flag leaf stage and another increase in size  of internode on the average between post anthesis and milk stage. 

Yield Traits
Brix ()
 The brix   gradually increases with harvesting done at the youngest or flag leaf stage (5.4) until soft dough stage (15.1) , decreased up to physiological maturity then peaked (16.9) with harvesting at the oldest stage of post physiological maturity.  At this stage,  the brix  was significantly the highest.   Brix  increase of  29.6 was noted between flag leaf to boot stage and 21.6 between physiological and post physiological maturity.  The lowest percentage increase of 2.7 was recorded at soft dough stage.   It can be stated that harvesting when the plant is most mature or at post physiological maturity is the best in order to get the significantly highest brix  of 16.9.  According to Prasad, et al (2007) citing Bitzer et al (2006), for best ethanol production from sorghum the crop should be harvested when the sugar content is in the range of 15.5  16.5.  Almodares, et al (2007)  also reported that high brix value was obtained at physiological maturity which was also confirmed by this study. At physiological maturity, there is decreasing acidic invertase content while natural invertase increases, hence the high sucrose content.

Juice Yield (kL ha-1)
The juice yield (kL ha-1) steadily increases with harvesting done at flag leaf stage until the hard dough stage where   significantly  the highest value of 41.8 (kL ha-1) was noted. Lowest juice yield (22.3 kL ha-1) was obtained when plants were harvested at youngest stage (flag leaf stage).  The percentage increase in the juice yield (kL ha-1)  which is  23.6  was noted between the flagleaf stage and the boot stage and  lowest percent of  increase (1.8) between milk stage and soft dough stage.  Beyond the hard dough stage a reduction in juice yield (kL ha-1) was  noted (-18.7) up to post physiological maturity.

 Stem Fresh Weight (t ha-1)
Te stem fresh weight (t h-1)  increased from 42.7 t h-1  at flag leaf stage harvest to 78.8 t h-1  hard dough stage harevest, then declined considerably.   The  stem fresh weight of plants harvested at hard dough stage was significantly the highest among all other values obtained when harvesting was done at various stages of  plants growth.  The highest increase of 24.6  in stem fresh weight (t h-1)  was obtained when plants were harvested at  boot stage.  Harvesting beyond the  hard dough stage,  reduces the stem fresh weight (t ha-1) by 14.6  and another 7.9. reduction was  with harvest done during the post physiological stage of the plant.

Total Fresh Biomass (t ha-1)
 The total fresh biomass (t ha-1) at periodic stages of harvest corresponding the to the stages of plants growth ranged from 52.7g for harvest at flag leaf stage and the highest total fresh biomass weight of 95.0  (t ha-1)  was obtained when plants were harvested at hard dough stage, steadily increasing in the process.  The total fresh biomass (t h-1)  at hard dough stage was significantly the highest  among the  total fresh biomass (t ha-1) obtained  by harvesting the plants at ten different stages corresponding to the different growth stages of the sorghum plant.  The percentage increase in the total fresh biomass (t ha-1) from flag leaf stage boot stage was 22.0.   Harvesting the  sorghum beyond hard dough stage, that is, at physiological maturity, reduced the total fresh biomass (t ha-1) by 23.4   and  by an added  6.6   when harvesting was done during post physiological stage of the plant.

Sugar Yield (t ha-1)
Sugar yield (t ha-1) also increased with harvests from flag leaf stage (1.21 t h-1 ) to hard dough stage (6.04 t h-1) then steadily decreased thereafter.  Sugar yield at hard dough stage however did not significantly differed with those obtained at earlier stages of  plant growth, that is the milk stage and the soft dough stage.  In fact highest increase of 34.0 was noted in the sugar yield (t h-1) was noted between post anthesis and the milk stage and 4.86  between the  milk stage and the soft dough stage.  It seemed that harvesting between the milk stage to hard dough stage was best  for maximum  sugar yield.  However, because the increase was very slight between the soft dough and hard dough stages (0.8),  harvesting between milk and dough stages may already be considered.  Choosing the soft dough stage as the best harvest stage for  getting a reasonable sugar yield (t ha-1) was based on the fact that a 4.86 increase would mean a substantial returns whereas a 0.8 increase is not enough to risk the plant of exposure  to inclement weather for an extended period of time in the field.  The  sugar yield (t ha-1)  increased considerably before the soft dough stage  from flag leaf to boot stage, the increase was 59.4  and another 36.3 percent was added at panicle emergence stage.  An additional 26.6  gain in sugar yield (t ha-1)  was recorded at anthesis, 29.1 at post anthesis and 34.0  during the milk stage.  Harvesting sorghum plant beyond the hard dough stage result in a reduction of  sugar yield (t ha-1) by 21.84  when done during the physiological maturity of the crop and another 7.6 percent when harvesting it at post physiological maturity. 

Panicle Fresh Weight (t ha-1)
There was no panicle fresh weight (t ha-1) data before anthesis as this is no longer a vegetative growth trait but one associated with the  reproductive growth.  The data show increasing  fresh panicle weight (t ha-1) from anthesis until soft dough stage and a decline in value when harvesting was done beyond this stage.   The panicle fresh weight of  5.67  (t ha-1)  obtained during harvest at soft dough stage was significantly the highest among the other harvest periods.  The trend in panicle fresh weight  (t ha-1)  increase with different harvest periods with  63.4 at post anthesis stage,  30.5 at milk stage and 25.3 at soft dough stage.

Leaf Dry Weight (t ha-1)
The leaf dry weight (t ha-1) data show increasing value from flag leaf stage (2.3 t ha-1) until the soft dough stage (3.65 t h-1).    However, the leaf dry weight at  soft dough stage did not significantly differed from those obtained at earlier stages of post anthesis (3.58 t h-1),  post anthesis (3.63 t h-1),   or at later hard dough stage (3.64 t h-1).  Highest leaf weight increase of 26.5 was noted between flag leaf and boot stages and  harvesting beyond the hard dough stage steadily decreases the leaf dry weight until the post physiological maturity with a magnitude decrease ranging from 0.27 to 2.9. 
Panicle Dry Weight (t ha-1)
    
Panicle dry weight (t ha-1) increases  with  harvesting done at increasing maturity of the sorghum plant from anthesis (1.01 t h-1 ) to post physiological maturity where  significantly the highest panicle dry weight of  2.64 t h-1 was  recorded.  The increase in panicle dry weight (t ha-1) from anthesis to post anthesis was 35.6  from a base data of 1.01 t ha-1.  From post anthesis a 39.4  gain in panicle dry weight (t ha-1) was obtained with harvesting during the milk stage of the sorghum plant.  Another 16.8  was realized with harvest during the soft dough stage and a reduction of  7.6 percent  was recoded when harvest was done at hard dough stage.  However, another gain in panicle dry weight (t ha-1) of 19.9 was noted upon harvesting at physiological maturity and  an additional 6.9 with harvest at post physiological maturity.  During this stage the maximum panicle dry weight  of 2.64 t ha-1 was  significantly the highest among the panicle dry weights obtained.

Stem dry weight (t ha-1)
Stem dry weight (t ha-1) periodically increased from 4.85 at flag leaf harvest to 14.97t ha-1 for  late harvest at post physiological maturity where significantly the highest stem dry weight was obtained.   The stem dry weight (t ha-1)  value was 4.81 at flag leaf  which increased by 56.3 at boot stage and an added 17.3   at panicle emergence.  Another 19.0 gain in stem dry weight (t ha-1) was realized when harvesting was done during the anthesis stage and an additional of 11.7 , 2.5, 8.2 , 3.3  and .53 when harvesting periods were delayed during post anthesis, milk stage, soft dough stage, and dough stage, and physiological maturity stages, respectively.

Total dry biomass (t ha-1)
The total dry biomass (t ha-1)  also considerably increases  from flag leaf stage harvest (7.15 t ha-1) until post physiological stage, where significantly the highest total dry biomass of 17.45 t ha-1 was obtained.  Slight decrease in total dry biomass  was obtained at physiological maturity.  The total biomass (t ha-1) increased by 46.7 when harvesting was done at boot stage,  another 14.9 at panicle emergence harvest, and  another 16.3 when harvesting was done at anthesis with an additional 9.9 when done at post anthesis.  A slight increase in total dry biomass (t ha-1) , that is, by 2.2 was realized when harvesting was done at milk stage, but an added 6.54 percent was noted when harvesting was done at soft dough stage and another 2.4 when done at hard dough stage.  A reduction of 7.5  in total dry biomass (t ha-1)  was realized when plants were harvested at physiological maturity.

Grain yield (t ha-1)
Grain yield  data which was the lowest at  the beginning of the reproductive period of anthesis ( 0.044t ha-1) steadily increased until physiological maturity (0.230t ha-1) and declined  drastically at post physiological maturity registering less than half of the harvest (0.067t ha-1).   This data show that harvesting at physiological maturity was the best stage to realize the maximum  grain yield (t ha-1) of  sorghum.  The value obtained by harvesting at this stage was significantly the highest among the grain yields (t ha-1) obtained from other harvesting periods.  The incremental increase  in grain yield (t ha-1) was 2.3 from anthesis to post anthesis harvests,  48.9  for milk stage harvest,  31.3 for soft dough stage harvest,  27.3 percent for hard dough stage harvest and which more than doubled (105.4)  during the physiological stage harvest and which reduced by 70.09 during the post physiological stage harvest. 

Harvest index (Grain) ()
The trend in the harvest index (grain )  data  follows that of the grain yield in that  it increases steadily from milk stage (0.427 grain )  to 1.185 (grain ) at physiological maturity after decreasing from anthesis to post anthesis.  Harvesting was initiated at anthesis stage with 0.321 grain   harvest index.  This value  decreased by 7.2 when harvesting was done during post anthesis stage.  Another 43.3 gain was realized with a later harvest period which was the milk stage of the plant with additional 23.0  when harvesting was done later at soft dough stage with another 25.7 gained when harvesting was made during the hard dough stage.  The highest increase of 79.3 in harvest index grain ()    was obtained when harvesting the plant at physiological maturity at a value of 1.185.   This value was significantly the highest among the harvest index (grain) () obtained from various harvest periods, so harvesting at physiological maturity was considered the best stage for harvest index (grain) ().

Harvest index sugar) ()
The final data was the harvest index (sugar) () which shows that of the ten harvest stages, the harvest index (sugar)()  steadily increases from flag leaf stage until a maximum of  36.6 harvest index (sugar ) was obtained at milk stage of sorghum growth.  It was also noted that this harvest index for sugar did not vary significantly with those obtained at soft and hard dough stages.  Just the same,  harvesting at milk stage is already the best for  harvest index (sugar ) because prolonged harvesting already resulted in reduction in harvest index (sugar ).  Beyond the milk stage where the highest incremental increase of 30.7 percent was obtained,  the harvest index for sugar considerably decreased until eventually  only 25.2  harvest index (sugar ) was obtained.   By increment,  the harvest index (sugar)() at flag leaf stage was 16.9  which increased by 9.5  when harvesting was done at boot stage and an additional 20.0 when harvesting at panicle emergence and another 9.5 when harvesting at anthesis and 15. at post anthesis.  Highest increase of 36.7 was realized during the milk stage harvest with a 1.4 reduction during the subsequent harvests at soft and hard dough stages.  Another 15.2 reduction in harvest index (sugar)() was realized when delaying the harvest at later stage of physiological maturity and still another decrease of 16.6 with further  harvest delay at post physiological maturity. 


Physiological Traits
Fo
Changes in plant Fo  is highly variable as indicated by  high Fo at flag leaf,  then declined until panicle emergence,  then increase again at anthesis slightly lowered at post anthesis then slightly increased before it hit the lowest value of 233.0 at soft dough stage.  Highest Fo was obtained at anthesis stage (373.0)  but this value did not significantly differed from those obtained at  flag leaf  stage (272.0),  milk stage (272.0)  and post anthesis stage (270.0). 

Fm
As to the amount of Fm,   it slightly increased at  boot stage,  then reduced at panicle emergence, increased at anthesis to post anthesis stage then continuously declined as the plant matures to soft dough stage.  Fm was significantly highest at highest at boot stage (1178).  Lowest Fm (339)  was obtained at soft dough stage harvest of the plant.  The result indicate that as early as boot stage, sorghum plant had accumulated its maximum Fm and whatever increase noted after flowering is slight enough to cause much difference in the value of this physiological trait.
    
The ratio of Fv to Fm  generally decreased  as the plant matures to soft dough stage.  FvFm was highest (0.786 ) during boot stage and decreased until anthesis.  The FVFm value at boot stage was significantly the highest among the ratios of FV to Fm obtained at all other stages of plant growth.  There was slight increase in the ratio of FVFm at post anthesis stage after which it declined until it reaches the lowest value of 0.313 at soft dough stage.    

Leaf temperature 0C
The leaf temperature of sorghum plant generally decreased as the plant grows older except for the slight increase noted at panicle emergence stage. Highest temperature of  30.30C was noted at the youngest stage of the plant (flag leaf stage) which was significantly the highest among the values obtained at various stages of plants growth except at panicle emergence stage where the leaf temperature 0f 29.40C was significantly similar.  Leaf temperature (10.20C)  was lowest when the plant was oldest (soft dough stage).

Stem temperature
The data trend in stem temperature 0C was similar to that of leaf temperature0C.  The highest stem temperature  of  28.20C was obtained  at the youngest stage of the sorghum plant, that is, at flag leaf stage and this temperature was statistically similar with  the value obtained at panicle emergence (28.70C ).   Stem temperature steadily decreased from panicle emergence until soft dough stage where the lowest stem temperature of 10.90C was recorded. 

Chlorophyll content (SPAD value)
The chlorophyll content of sorghum plant increased when harvesting was done at the youngest stage of the plant (flag leaf stage)  and peaked  at panicle emergence harvest with a value of 48.6.  At this stage,  there must be more chlorophyll to maximize the production of  starch in preparation for the shift to reproductive growth.  The  cholorophyll content  at panicle emergence was significantly the highest among the values obtained when sorghum plants are at various stages of growth.  The cholorophyll content  value continuously decreased as the plant progresses in its reproductive stages until the soft dough stage where  the lowest SPAD value  of 38.3  was obtained. 
Biochemical Traits

Extractable juice ()
There was an increasing and decreasing   extractable juice as plant moves from one growth stage to another with the highest value of 54.5 obtained at panicle emergence and the lowest value of 41.8 percent when the plant was oldest (post physiological maturity).  The  extractable juice was statistically similar indicating not much difference in the amount obtained from the youngest (flag leaf stage) to the older stage of the plant (physiological maturity).  The  extractable juice at post physiological maturity was significantly the lowest.

Juice pH 
A slightly  erratic trend in the juice pH was noted in the data.  The juice pH slightly declined when plants were harvested at boot stage, then slightly increased at panicle emergence harvest, then decreased continuously until hard dough stage harvest then peaked when plants were harvested at physiological maturity.  The juice pH at this stage was 5.5 and significantly the highest among the measurements done at all other stages of growth.  The lowest juice pH of 4.70 was noted during late harvest when the plants are in their post physiological maturity stage.  This means that fermentation had already taken place hence the juice was already acidic.

Total sugars ( wv)
 The total sugars (wv)  of sorghum plant continuously increased as harvesting was delayed with lowest value of  4.66  noted among plants harvested at flag leaf stage  and the highest, that is, 23.7 obtained  at a later harvest, that is, hard dough stage of the plant.  A decline in the  total sugars  was observed when harvesting was done at physiological and post physiological maturity stage of the sorghum plant.  The total sugars obtained at hard dough stage was significantly the highest indicating that this stage was the best stage to harvest for total sugar (wv)  content.

Reducing sugars (vw) 
The amount of reducing sugars (vw)  also increased when harvesting was done early (flag leaf stage)  until post anthesis stage where the highest amount of reducing sugar was obtained which is 12.0.   This amount though although significantly the highest, did not differ significantly with the reducing sugars (vw) recorded when plants were harvested at milk stage (11.84)  and those harvested at hard dough stage (11.91).  Harvesting beyond physiological maturity resulted in reduced amount of reducing sugar  with the lowest of 2.26 obtained when harvesting was done  when plant was oldest at post physiological maturity.
Non-reducing sugar(wv)
    
The amount of non-reducing sugar (wv) steadily increases with various stages of  plant growth, peaked at  hard dough stage and steadily decreased until the post physiological stage.  The highest amount of non-reducing sugar  (11.8)  was obtained when plants were harvested at hard dough stage.  This value was significantly the highest among the non-reducing sugars obtained from harvesting sorghum at various stages of plant growth.  The lowest amount 1.86 was noted when plants were harvested at  the earliest stage of  plant growth which is at flag leaf stage.

Starch (ug g-1)
The starch content of sorghum plant ranged from 7.8 ugg  which was obtained among plants harvested at boot stage and the highest of 53.4 ug g-1  was obtained when harvesting was done at milk stage of the plant.  At this stage, plants had finished rapid vegetative growth and begin the reproductive stage,  hence plant sugars are converted to starch and stored in the grain which explains the highest starch content at this stage. The starch content at this stage was significantly the highest compared to the values for harvests in all other stages of the sorghum plant.  The data further show an increasing trend in the starch content ug g-1  as harvests progresses from the young stage of plant growth until milk stage.  Beyond this stage the starch content considerably declined but  increased substantially at the last harvest  when plants are almost senescent at post physiological maturity.

Juice purity
The percentage juice purity increased with early harvest  (flag leaf stage)  until panicle emergence stage, then slightly decreased until milking stage.  Juice purity then increased  to 49.7  when harvesting was done at soft dough stage and almost doubled (81.3) at hard dough stage.  The juice purity at this stage was significantly the highest.  The juice purity decreases with later harvest until the lowest of 12.52 was obtained when plants were harvested at  post physiological stage.