Agricultural Studies

Of the total land area In Ireland, 64 is specifically used for Agricultural practice. Agriculture is categorized into three main types grazing, dairy farming and arable farming. Forestry takes 9.4 of the total land. The mild temperatures, high rainfall and fertile land in the country provide ideal conditions necessary for agriculture and despite the pattern of decline in the past two decades, agricultural activities still remain an important source of employment in rural and remote regions of the country. The drop in agricultural output from 16  of GDP in the year 1975 to 5  in 1998 shows only a relative decline  when measured against the steady increase in GDP which is driven by other sectors. Although the fall in prices of agricultural products has been drastic, the volume of output has only experienced a small decrease (Donnelan 2010, p. 3). As a result, the agricultural industry is suffering from overcapacity and falling incomes and its highly reliant on EU subsidies and fixed prices.

The number of small-scale farmers remains high for an industrialized country and most of them take up other forms of employment to subsidize their income. Even though the average farm size which is currently 29.5 hectares or 73 acres is progressively increasing, the Irish farmers association asserts that the farm size remains the single biggest hindrance to generating adequate income in the agricultural sector. After the last ice age in Ireland, very little forests remained and these were the dwarf birch and willow but as the weather warmed up, Scots pine and Birch developed. The cold climate caused the forest areas in Ireland to clear out and as a result, peat bogs developed leaving most of the land to be open as it is today. This essay will mainly explore the major factors affecting the development of agriculture and forestry in Ireland. In addition I will also talk about my opinion regarding the importance of the environment and rural development along with the production of agricultural products (Donnelan 2010, p. 3).

Factors affecting agricultural development in Ireland
Agriculture is an important industry in Ireland and currently, farmers make up to 7 of the workforce. When employment in inputs, processing and marketing is included, the agri-food sector accounts for almost 10 of the employment. Irish agriculture is primarily a grass-based industry whereby 80 of agricultural land is devoted to grass (hay, silage and pasture), 11 to rough grazing and 9  to crop production.  Beef and milk production account for close to 60 of agricultural output at producer prices (Donnellan 2010, p.2).
 According to report from the European Commission, the development of agriculture in Ireland has been affected by factors like those illustrated below

Increase in prices of agricultural land Since land is one of the factors of production in agriculture, an increase in the cost of agricultural land has made many people to shift focus from investing in agriculture to other better income generating projects like property development and road building. All this is a result of low income that is generated from practicing agriculture which is lower compared to the cost of land.

Climate change  Agricultural practice is interrelated to climate change. Therefore global warming is projected to have a significant effect on the conditions that affect agriculture in Ireland. Such conditions include temperature, carbon dioxide, glacial run-off, precipitation and an overall interaction of these elements. Formation of ice during winter seasons greatly affects the growth of crops due to the extreme cold temperatures which causes them to die off. In addition, such low temperatures can cause seed dormancy hence the newly planted crops may not germinate until the dormancy is broken.

Crop pests and diseases The magnitude of damage caused by pests and diseases on crops in Ireland is complicated because the direct effects on crop development are normally compounded by indirect adverse effects. Crop diseases reduce yields and competitiveness in crop production and their effects are largely unquantified. Similarly, there is reduced animal production especially when animal health is affected by diseases.

Arable land This is a term that is used to refer to land that can be used for growing crops. Although there are constraints by land mass and topology, the amount of arable land in Ireland has fluctuated due to human and climatic factors like irrigation, deforestation, desertification, terracing and land fill. All these factors highly affect crop production and as a result, agricultural development has been hindered.
Environmental pollution  In this case, the mismanagement of agricultural soils and their fertility often result in soil erosion, salinization and desertification. As a result of these, soil gets contaminated with chemicals and heavy metals which affect soil sustainability in the long run. Pollution of surface and ground water as a result of increased fertilizer utilization or high animal stocking densities are also detrimental to agricultural land. This has played a big role in hindering agricultural development (EC, 2005, p. 14).
Major factors affecting forestry in Ireland

In the past, Ireland was dominated by woodland but land clearance reduced the woodland cover to 1.4 immediately after the First World War. Currently, forestry covers about 6 of Northern Ireland and this only makes a small but valuable contribution to the rural economy.  The Irish Government is currently proposing to double the Irish forest estate from the current level of 9 of the land area by the year 2030. To achieve this, its important that the government develops regionally applicable forestry policies and strategies that can be used to a national scale instead of using the generic ones (OLeary 2000, p.39). Forestry development in Ireland is affected by several factors. The following are some of the major ones Forest fires  This is a common problem because in every spring in Ireland, there are several hundreds hectares of forests and woodland that are usually destroyed by fire. Currently, weather conditions show that there is an increased risk of forest fires which needs a keen attention of forest owners and the public. The areas facing greater risk are those around and within the moorland areas. In most cases, its the dry periods and seasonal high winds which aid in the creation of ideal conditions for wild fires to spread so fast through highly flammable moorland vegetation. Woodlands that are located in the path of such fires can be very easily destroyed and young forest crops are also particularly at the risk of fire (Bailey 2007, p. 1888).

Activities of man Man has largely contributed to the disappearance of forests in Ireland by clearing large areas of forest. The wood obtained from cutting down trees is used for many purposes like building of shelter and fuel. Studies have shown that the rate of forest clearance has gradually increased from Stone Age to the Iron Age.  Comparatively, history reveals that Ireland started experiencing the export of timber as far back as the 16th century. For example Barrel staves were being exported to England, Scotland, Holland, Spain and the Canary Islands (Bailey 2007, p. 1888).

Climate the cold climate in Ireland has largely contributed to the underdevelopment of forestry. Cold seasons especially winter makes some tree species to disappear leaving very few in survival. Pollen analysis at different weather seasons has shown a difference in the proportion of the various species although some are all weather species. Examples of such species include Oak, Ash, Elm, Alder and Willow.  Hot and dry seasons increase the water uptake by woodlands which restricts planting to take place in areas with limited water availability (Bailey 2007, p. 1890).

Pest and disease outbreak  This greatly affects the growth of trees and facilitates the extinction of some species. An illustration of this is the increasing impact of the green spruce aphid on commercial plantations of Sitka spruce (Archell, 2007, p. 9).

Forest culture  There is no discernable forest management culture in Ireland. This is mainly because most of the activities done in relation to forestry are grant driven hence people dont have an inborn urge to preserve forests. The fact that forestry is relatively low in Ireland is also an obvious reason as to why development in this sector is so sluggish.  Data from the National forest Inventory shows that 60 of the forest stock in Ireland is less than 20 years and that proper first thinning is quite essential. It is notable  that there is little emphasis on timber markets hence there is a need of changing peoples  mind set to understand that forestry is an investment which has several benefits to the country and people of Ireland as well (Food and agriculture Department 2000, p.8 ).
 My opinion as to why the environment and rural development are important, along with the production of agricultural commodities.

The word rural can be interpreted in so many ways but the general idea of understanding this term is the actions and initiatives that are taken in order to improve the standard of living in non-urban areas. In my opinion, rural development is an essential consideration because it helps to sustain the survival of people who live in rural areas. The fact that rural areas are usually very rich in agricultural produce due to fertile and unpolluted land implies that developing such areas is essential. If accomplished, it would play a big role in developing the agriculture industry in Ireland. Based on the fact that rural development is closely linked to social structure, it will involve the general balance between the rural regions and other areas of economic significance like energy, infrastructure and education. For instance, if the infrastructure in rural areas is well developed transportation of agricultural produce to urban areas or within Ireland will become more efficient and fast.

Environmental development is also considered to be very important in sustaining agriculture in Ireland. These calls for good Agri-environmental measures which are designed to encourage farmers to preserve the environment by preventing soil air and water pollution to increase their land produce. Land can be conserved by reducing the use of chemical fertilizers in growing crops. This enhances the survival of flora and fauna. Water quality may be can be protected by use of measures that reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Similarly, production of agricultural products is of great benefit to Ireland. This is because the export of   main products is essential in boosting the economy through exports. The contribution Agriculture to the Irish economy may be twice that of the European Union average hence the agricultural food exports may account for a big percentage of the total foreign earnings. The   large exports of beef, sheep, pigs and dairy animals make Ireland to be among the largest exporters in the world which is important in stabilization of the countrys economy.

In conclusion, agriculture and forestry in Ireland should be recovered by addressing the main factors that are hindering development of these specific areas.  Some of the factors have been discussed in this essay and with proper planning and implementation of good farming practices, this problem can be overcome. Farmers should be well paid for their products in order to motivate them in practicing agriculture despite the various challenges they encounter. In addition, they can also be rewarded to engage in Good Farming Practices (GFP) that will promote environmental conservation for sustainable agriculture in Ireland. Citizens of Ireland should be educated on the importance of conservation of forests and discourage them from engaging in activities that may lead to desertification.

The maturity of sweet sorghum is subdivided into many stages. The sugar accumulation in the sweet sorghum stalk juice differs in each stage so it is difficult to know the optimum harvesting time. Many studies have already reported that sugar accumulation in the sweet sorghum stalk juice starts from booting stage. The sugar content in the sweet sorghum stalk increases between the milk stages and dough stages. It then starts to decline during the physiological maturity. Since no study has made a conclusion on the exact harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk where the sugar content is at the maximum, thus, the main core of this study is to determine the optimum harvesting time between the milk stage and physiological maturity where the sugar content of the sweet sorghum stalk is at the highest.

As the sweet sorghum approaches maturity, the stem juice composition and the quality of the stalk changes (Prasad et al, 2007, p.2418). As the sweet sorghum becomes mature, the sugar content of the stem juice increases and the stalk becomes bigger (Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2418). High amount of sugar can be found in its stem or stalk (Food and Agriculture Association, 2010 Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2417 Almodares et al, 2007, p. 424 Matei and Nicolescu, n.d., p.167 Woods 200 p.6). Sweet sorghum stems sugar content is mainly 70-80 saccharose and the rest are fructose and glucose (Food and Agriculture Association, 2010).
The sugar in the sweet sorghums stem or stalk can be obtained through the extraction of juice by means of milling (Tsuchihashi and Goto, 2004, p. 442). Sugar is expressed as degree Brix (Brix) and is measured through the use of Brix hydrometer or sugar refractometer (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2).

The different stages of maturity also affect the sugar content of sweet sorghums stem juice. The steps in the stages of maturity of the seed are early-flowering, flowering, late-flowering, early-milk, late-milk, soft-dough, hard-dough, and ripe (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2). 

Matei and Nicolescu (n.d., p.170) stated in their study that sugar starts to build up during the early stage of sweet sorghum development. At the beginning of the harvest, the sugar concentration in sweet sorghum s stem juice is approximately 12.5 Brix and as sweet sorghum reaches maturity the sugar concentration increases up to 17 Brix (Prasad et al, 2007, p. 2418).

Almodares et al (2007, p. 424) stated that during flowering, the sugar content is lowest. This mainly because of the presence of high acid invertase enzyme during the flowering stage (Almodares et al, 2007 p.424).
Hills (1990, p.14) reported that sugar concentration in sweet sorghums stalk juice starts to increase during the milk stage to the soft dough stage of the seed and then decreases as the seeds become more mature.
Also, Matei and Nicolescu (n.d., p.170) declared with experimental results that sugar content in sweet sorghum increases during milk maturity stage (14.29 grams100 ml juice) and decreases after the physiological maturity (13.67 grams100 ml. juice). Hunter and Anderson (1997, p.82) cited that sugar content of sweet sorghums stalk juice is almost double between the dough stage and physiological maturity compared to the sugar content  between the milk and dough stages.

Muminov (1997, p.353) stated in his study that at the beginning of the milky ripeness period, the monosaccharides and disaccharides in the sweet sorghum stalk juice continue to increase and the ratio of dry matter  to sweet sorghum stalk juice stabilizes. The high acidic characteristic of sweet sorghum stalk juice in the flowering stage remains in the milky ripeness period which is presented by Muminov (1997, p.353) as pH 3.2 and titratable acid of 4.7gliter tartaric acid. As the sweet sorghum reaches maturity, the acid declines while the sugar content increases. Beyond the full ripeness of the sorghum, the pH value and titratable acidity of the sweet sorghum stalk juice decreases to pH 5.4 and 2.4 gliter tartaric acid, respectively (Muminov, 1997, p.353).

Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2) devised a simple method in order to determine the maturity of the sweet sorghum. As per Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2), as the stalk reaches its full size, the seed heads also reaches its maturity, thus, by merely looking at the seed head, one can determine if the sweet sorghum plant is already matured.

Sweet sorghum stalks can be harvested within ten days after harvesting the grains but the total soluble sugar content expressed as Brix will only be 14 Brix to 20 Brix and the juice content will only be 48 to 50 (International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010). If the sweet sorghum is mainly cultivated for sugar and sorghum syrup, therefore, the stalk should be harvested without grains or 20 days prior to physiological maturity (International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010). By harvesting the stalk before physiological maturity, the total soluble sugar content will be 16 Brix to 23 Brix and the juice content will be approximately 55 to 60 International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 2010).

Prasad et al (2007, p.2418) and Bitzer and Fox (2000, p.2) suggested that sweet sorghums should be harvested before maturity where the sugar content is approximately in the range of 15.5 Brix to 16.5 Brix Almodares et al (2007, p.424) reported that during physiological maturity and before chilling the sugar content is about 15.97 Brix. The findings of Almodares el al (2007) are in parallel with that of the findings of Prasad et al (2007). During physiological maturity, the high acid invertase enzymes which are present in the flowering stage are being replaced by the natural invertase enzymes that catalyze sugar production (Almodares et al, 2007, p. 424). Harvest time should not exceed the physiological maturity because the starch content of sweet sorghums stem juice increases beyond maturity (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2). The starch content increases during maturity because of the enzymes that are naturally present in sweet sorghum and other plants. These enzymes catalyze the conversion of sugar in the sweet sorghum stalk juice which is mainly composed of monosaccharides and disaccharides like glucose and fructose into a polysaccharide which is starch. Also, crystallization and gelling of sweet sorghum syrup might occur if the stalk will be harvested beyond maturity (Bitzer and Fox, 2000, p.2).

Muminov (1997, p.354) suggested that sweet sorghum stalk should be harvested before the technological ripeness period and should be processed during the technological ripeness period if the sweet sorghum is cultivated for the purpose of obtaining edible concentrated glucose-fructose syrup.
But in a recent study by the Maryland researchers, delaying the harvest time of sweet sorghum by one month beyond the soft-dough stage gives beneficial effects in places with cool climate (Austin, 2010). Delayed harvest time resulted to decrease in biomass and juice volume but an increase in sugar content (Austin, 2010).

The time of harvesting and determination of maturity of sweet sorghum are very crucial in obtaining sweet sorghum with high sugar content. Since ethanol production also depends on sugar content, therefore knowing the right time of harvesting and determining maturity are also beneficial in obtaining high ethanol yield.
Again, the studies being mentioned didnt exactly gave the optimum harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk therefore, this study is made for the reason of determining the optimum harvesting time of sweet sorghum stalk with the highest sugar content.

Following are the growth and yield traits (Brix, Juice yield, stem fresh weight, total fresh biomass, sugar yield, total dry biomass, and harvest index) against the different stages of sorghum during its development and growth. The most important are the three stages milk stage, soft dough stage, hard dough stage.

Most important yield figures are seen during these three stages only. During the Milk stage Brix obtained is 14.7b, with little changes its 15.1cb at soft dough stage. Another entity juice yield at milk stage is 39.2ba followed by 39.9ba soft dough stage and considerable volume of 41.8a at hard dough stage further declines. Stem fresh weight shows good sum of 75.ba at soft dough state and good increase of 78.8a at hard dough stage further declines. This concludes here that stem fresh weight is good at hard dough stage. Volume of total fresh biomass is only good at hard dough stage of 95.0a and considerable of 90.9ba at soft dough stage.

The most important sugar yield is can be seen at all three stages but very good at hard dough stage of 6.9a and at milking stage 5.7a and repidely declines with maturity. Total dry biomass is again the entity that is observed to be good sanding at hard dough stage with sum of 17.7ba if compared with milk stage and soft dough stage and again 17.45ba at post Physiological maturity. Harvest index has different story to tell as its ratio is 36.6a i.e. highest at milking stage as compared with hard dough stage which is 35.6a. This Growth and Yield stage shows that the hard dough stage is the best time to harvest. It can be seen if considering the bio chemical traits to decide the harvest time for sorghum sweet and the results are following the result goes into the favour of hard dough stage. The extractable juice is highest at hard dough stage with figure of 53.2a.

Total sugar also is highest at hard dough stage of 23.7a and rapidly declines as maturity stage increases.  Starch obtained at hard dough stage is 20.8d and is highest among all stages of sorghum sweet lifespan. Juice purity is most important and this purity is at its best during the hard dough stage i.e. 81.3a as compared with milk stage (41.1ed) and soft dough stage (64.5b)

Farm management is described by West Virginia University as the collective learnt skills that enable the manager of a farm to arrive at informed decisions (para. 1). The decisions made by a farm manager lead to the implementation of changes that aim at making the farms operations fulfill its goals and expectations. A farms success may be measured against the quality and timely adequacy of the decisions made by the manager based on the quality of information. This has an ability of reflecting on the quality and quantity of produce the farm achieves.

For this Farm Management report, I chose Corn production as the crop of choice as it is a widely grown produce that has the potential to make a good return. The decision to grow corn was arrived at after evaluating the conditions necessary for the growth of corn which revealed climatic conditions that are not too demanding to the at times unpredictable weather. An added advantage of a limited requirement of workforce and care for the plant growth made growing corn a more profiting venture to indulge in. I also located my 192 acre farm in Iowa which is a region that suits the growth of corn hence has been the biggest producer of corn in the US in the past 14 years (Iowa Corn, para. 4).

According to the US environmental protection Agency, the US is the largest corn producer in the world (para. 1) with farmers producing approximately 100 billion in corn every year. Grown in over 400,000 farms, the US was responsible for the production of almost 10million bushels of corn out of the 23 billion bushel crop the world relies on annually. A quarter of the corn harvested from the US is used for grain in the country while that grown for silage make up an extra two percent which can be translated to six million acres. The percentage of land cultivated for silage varies as growing conditions change which might lead to corn plantations being salvaged for silage in poor weathers that affect the growth of the crop (para. 1).

Uses of corn
The Nebraska Corn Board reports that there are currently over 3,500 uses for corm ranging from the manufacture of aspirin, disposable diapers, and latex paint to shaving cream (para. 1). The board however describes main corn use in the US as for animal and human food and also export. The Environmental protection Agency writes of a report by the nations National Corn Growers Association which reflects that approximately eighty percent of the corn grown in the country is consumed by livestock, with the rest fed to fish and poultry either locally or overseas. The crop is also fed in the form of ground grain, high moisture, silage or enriching corn oil. Another approximated 12 of corn grown in the US is used in foods directly as corn chips or indirectly in the form of high content fructose corn syrup. A wide variety of its industrial use also includes the manufacture of ethanol which is a popularly used oxygenate in the production of burning automobile fuels. The extensive use of corn within and outside America makes it a preferable crop as the market is assured and in case of any poor bad weather affecting the crop, it can be salvaged for use in silage hence preventing huge losses that would be otherwise incurred.
Farm Management Practices for the Growth of Corn
   
Research by North Dakota State University reveals that changes in technology, export markets, farm policies and environmental rules and regulations have increasingly created the need for corn farms to have keen planning and management in order to secure maximum yields that fetch a high profit (para. 1). The agricultural department adds that weather changes, varied rain amounts and soil conditions may call for corn growers to implement specific systems in tillage, soil preparation, strategies in weed control, fertility management disease and pest control practices. These aspects will act as the key managerial responsibility in the corn farm to ensure quality corn is harvested that ensures high profit is realized.
  
 It is evident that the timely decisions made by management in corn farms such as purchasing disease free seeds, practicing crop hygiene, crop rotation, good spray management and using disease resistant methods determine the success of production especially in the big farm to ensure quality and quantity of the produce. It is important that farm management go by the rules and regulations set aside by the federal label clearance when buying products such as seeds, pesticides and other farm products. Other contributions by reliable research bodies to comply with the relevance practices and rules applied in the growth of corn should be sought to ensure state of the art technologies and procedures are followed that ensure maximum profits. This is further emphasized by the fact that some pests and diseases affecting grains become resistance with time hence current means of combating them should be applied where possible. APSnet suggests the use of disease resistant seeds would help deal with the problem (Munkvold and Hellmich, para 1). The farm will invest in seeds that are resistant to diseases and pests to ensure diseases do not take over.

Conditions Necessary for the Growth of Corn
    Knowledge in the stages of growth for corn helps growers to time the field operations properly so as to take advantage of opportunity windows. McWilliams, Berglund, and Endres explain that proper timing for fertilizer application, cultivation, irrigation and pest control can improve yields significantly (para. 1). Poor timing of these activities would imply bad crop development and in bad cases huge losses incurred. The writers also insist on the need of farm managers to have extensive knowledge on the different plant growth processes as it would lead to the innovation of means that lead to an enhancement of the crop growth.  As the proprietor, I intend to hire a well trained manager with adequate knowledge on farm operations while at the same time trying to seek information on the many farm practices that surround growing corn. By having an ability to detect plant symptoms of deficiency in different stages, the farm manager would be in a good position to determine a possible cause and an effective measure to curb the problem (para. 2). Growth of corn needs specific climatic and soil conditions to ensure a good yield.

Due to changes in climate owing to global warming and varied soil needs, these conditions may change from season to season. Owing to this reason, conditions in the farm can be boosted to ensure that the crop grows under the best possible environment that will ensure maximum yield. As documented in the Corn Production Guide by North Dakota State University, corn requires 18-22 inches of soil moisture to achieve a maximum potential in growth (para. 1). Through tilling the land enough to ensure adequate depth and texture is achieved, the soil function ability would be ensured. Irrigation is the best option for supplementing rain which is a solution to maintaining soil moisture that is which needed for corn growth. In the presence of adequate soil moisture, corn has the capability of producing about 8-14 bushels of grain and a relative 1.25-1.75 tons of fodder for every inch of additional water supplied (North Dakota State University, para. 1). Despite Iowa displaying the ability to grow corn, irrigation has always been used to achieve good and controlled levels of soil moisture (Williamson, pp. 2).

The North Dakota State University explains that the maturity length of corn affects the rate of water usage. In a typical growing season, water use by a 90 day corn will significantly exceed that of an 80 day old corn (para. 1). In this light, the varied maturity length taken by corn affects the levels of seasonal water use. Consequently, the amount and frequency of irrigation conducted on a water plantation depends on the growth rate and growth stage of the corn which in turn is determined by water holding capacity of the soil and the existing weather condition. This calls for the implementation of an irrigation system that is implemented based on the need of water by the corn within the farm.

Corn is seen to be a deep rooted crop. The North Dakota State University reports that in relatively deep soils, corn roots will reach up to 18 inches from the stalk and an added 4 inches deep. About 90 of the roots are found at the top 3 feet and is considered an effective depth for the purposes of irrigation (para. 3). It is reported that about 40 of the moisture used by the plants is derived from the first one foot of soil, 30 from the next foot and 20 from the third foot. The soil below three feet is accountable for less than ten percentage of water used by the crop. Soil texture, depth in addition to its water holding capacity has great influences on the amount and frequency of irrigation necessary (para. 5). It is important to have a soil profile that is up to the field capacity during planting. Initially, this may be made possible owing to the natural effect of winter snow and the rainfalls of spring to enhance root development in the later seasons. As a result, the soil will need to be tilled to a point where it acquires the required depth and texture before planting.
 Corn is considered as relatively resistant to drought (North Dakota State University, para. 7) and can survive moisture depletion in the soil up to 60. Blister Kernel development has ensured the growth of corn with such high water deletion levels without affecting the yield. Research shows that application of lesser irrigation water to corn frequently bears better results than the application of large amounts often, a factor that will be considered.

Planting Corn
Proper cultivating tools vary depending on soil type, crop to be cultivated, weeds and the depth that is aimed at being achieved. Proper cultivation for the growth of corn requires the use of Flex-tine harrows which plough both over and between crop rows. Their efficiency is added by the fact that they can be used in the event of repeated harrowing to prevent newly germinating weeds from chocking the crop. Crop rotation will also be practiced to ensure the success of this crop which makes the soil prone to bearing the best results (University of Connecticut, para. 2). According to Iowa State University, seed rates evaluation done in 2006 indicated that planting 25,000-45,000 seeds per acre would result in a good yield (para. 2). The institution also added that the location of the farm and surrounding vegetative conditions in relation to pollination contributes highly to the status of the yield. The environment and the condition of the field should therefore be considered before making decisions on seed rate to ensure high yields. The existence of many corn farms in Iowa is an advantage to the farm as the yields success is more or less predetermined.
Fertilization is an important aspect to consider so as to ensure good yield in fields that have low nutrient levels. Rehm, et al. of the University of Minnesota account that corn requires a good amount of nitrogen in the soil to flourish. They add that technological advancement has seen practices such as weed and pest control shift focus away from nitrogen rates to parasite elimination (para. 6). From soil tests conducted prior to planting, addition of fertilizers will be determined.

The productivity of the soil is the biggest determinant of levels of nitrogen and the need to add more of it to the soil. Soil tests conducted to determine the levels of nitrogen before planting will guide the farms management in deciding whether or not to increase the amount through administering nitrogenous fertilizers. Such fertilizers include diammonium phosphate which has the ability to suppress pests and diseases and also trigger early maturity in corn (North Carolina State University, para. 10). Corn can be affected by pests such as false wireworms, wireworms, cutworms, army worms and black beetles (Government of Australia, para. 76). These pests and diseases can be combated through administering pesticides that are readily available in the market.

Harvesting and Estimating Corn Yields
Harvesting of corn is done once the ears are completely filled out in the case of sweet corn and until the ears are brown and dry in the case of dry corn (National Gardening, para. 3). Machines are used to separate the corn from the cob in the case of large scale production. Large scale harvesting is done using a header, a machine that removes the maize leaving the stalks standing (Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations, para. 22). The stalks can be cut and sold fro use in different industries. This form of harvesting makes covering such a huge volume of land easy and saves time. After harvesting and processing, disease and pest control methods are administered to ensure the harvest is not destroyed while in storage awaiting consumption or sale. Owing to the changes in different pesticides and insecticides due to resistance, only the best and most effective brands will be recommended for use.

The North Dakota University suggests several methods in calculating the estimate of yield expected by corn growers prior to harvests. A more reliable version developed by the University of Illinois which is the most commonly used necessitates the use of a numerical kernel weight in calculating the amount of grain expected. Due to the variance in weight per kernel based on the differences in environmental factors and crop breed, the equation is rendered as being an estimate to relative yield of the grain. As a result, yields would probably be overestimated in poor yield seasons and an underestimation expected in a high yield season. This method of estimate will be used to be able to predict the expected yield and also make future plans for improvement.

Cost of Growing Corn
The Ontario Corn Growers Association claims that drying is not necessary for high moisture corn otherwise known as whole plant silage (para. 1). The association also claims that costs per acre for harvesting and storing whole plant silage is relatively high. Owing to this, the farm will in the first seasons refrain from drying the crop hence avoid unnecessary costs. Increase in corn yields also increases per acre costs of fertilizers and other materials used in the process and also drying the produce and trucking. The farm management will charge itself with all activities that aim at increasing yields of quality. Other production costs remain constant with the exclusion of land whose rate of renting varies with time. Rental of land in areas where yields are higher than the provincial yields is usually higher than in areas with low yields. To make good profits, growers are more likely to maintain a low per acrebushel cost of production through reducing tillage costs, application of nitrogen fertilizer, costs of fertilizer application and drying expenses (para. 2). Renting land wont be a problem to the farm as the 192 acres are already bought, offering a good platform for production of the crop. With time, the management may decide to boost the farms profits through marketing.

Corn Growth is increasingly showing great potential in the market and also industries due to its many uses within America and the rest of the world. The market share is also expected to increase due to its diverse use and increasing demand in the market. The quick growth of the crop and a relative good return weighed against the few requirements for its growth which can be fully mechanized, make it a more preferable crop to be grown. Improvement in farm management skills, increasing the density of planting and methods in areas of pest and disease control, and other methods will ensure the yields increase, and more profits would be realized.

Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is an important bio-energy crop, and mostly it is grown for syrup and ethanol production. In sweet sorghum, sugar concentration increases at certain growth stage and drops down at maturity. As the crop matures, changes in the volume and composition of the juice influence the sugar yield, since the sugar content usually continues to increase as maturity approaches, the best harvest time in sweet sorghum is the most critical in getting higher sugar and juice yields.

A field experiment was conducted during 2009 to study the effect of different harvest time on sugar and juice yield of sweet sorghum. Sweet sorghum variety M81E was harvested at ten growth stages initially at flag leaf stage, boot, panicle emergence, anthesis and post-anthesis followed by milk, soft dough and hard dough stage and finally the maturity stages. The physiological parameters like chlorophyll SPAD readings, leaf temperature, stem temperature and FvFm ratio were measured before each harvest. Growth and yield parameters like plant height, stem girth, brix,  juice yield, sugar yield, total dry biomass, grain yield and juice quality characteristics were recorded after harvest.

The results showed the effect of harvesting stage on brix, sugar yield, juice yield, juice purity,  total sugars, and non-reducing sugars were significant. The results show that highest brix ()  was obtained when plants were harvested at post physiological maturity.   On the other hand,  sugar yield was significantly highest when plants were harvested at hard dough stage but  the difference was comparable with early harvests either at milk stage or soft dough stage of the crop. Juice yield (kL ha-1) was highest  when harvesting was done during the  hard  dough stage, although the magnitude of increase was comparable to those plants harvested  from the milk stage  and soft dough stage. Juice purity (), total sugars (wv), and non-reducing sugars (wv) were significantly highest among plants harvested at hard dough stage .  Based on the results,  harvesting  the plants at hard dough stage gave the highest juice purity(), total sugars (wv), and non-reducing sugars(wv).  High sugar yield(t ha-1) and juice yield (kL ha-1 ) are obtainable from plants harvested  at milk stage to hard dough stage.  Late harvest at post physiological maturity produced the highest brix ().

Plant height
Plant height (cm) of sorghum  steadily increased from the youngest stage (flag leaf stage)  to  the oldest stage (post physiological maturity).  Tallest plant  of 388.9 cm was noted at late harvest or post physiological maturity but this height did not  significantly vary with the heights at soft dough until the physiological maturity stages.    Highest percentage increase of 1.59 was noted between the panicle emergence and anthesis or flowering stage.   The lowest plant of 249 cm was noted  at the youngest stage (flag leaf stage) of the plant.     The highest height increase of  25.94 was noted between flag leaf stage and boot stage.

Number of leaves per plant
 The periodic increase in number of leaves per plant show an upward trend up to  milk stage after which the value declined with the lowest of 10.8 obtained at physiological maturity.  The most number of leaves was 15.1 on the average and obtained at milk stage harvest and this value was significantly the highest among all other values obtained at various stages of harvests.  The highest percentage increase of 7.03 percent  was noted during the boot stage  harvest.  Beyond the milk stage, the number of leaves decreased at a magnitude ranging from 9.3 at soft dough stage  to 11.67 at physiological maturity which indicated that the plant is way past maturity and had already reached the stage of senescence.

Number of internodes per plant
 The number of internodes per sorghum plant  increased from flag leaf stage (11.1) to  milk stage  (15.1) after which decline was noted until physiological maturity.  The number of internodes per plant at milk stage did not significantly vary with those at post anthesis stage (14.8).  Both values varied significantly with the number of internodes per plant obtained at all other stages of plant growth.   Just like any vegetative growth stage,  highest percentage increase of  19.82  in the number of internodes per plant was noted during the boot stage and  decrease of  9.27  noted between milk stage to soft dough stage.   

Leaf area (cm)
 The leaf area (cm) of sorghum for ten harvesting stages,  gradually increased from flag leaf  (4141.6cm)  until  post anthesis stage (5074.6cm) where the maximum leaf area was obtained until it declined  to  the lowest value of  4017.8 at soft dough stage.   The increase in leaf area at post anthesis stage did not significantly differed with those  obtained when plants were harvested either at anthesis  or soft dough stages.  There was  no longer recorded  leaf areas from hard dough stage to post physiological maturity stage.   The highest increase in leaf area (cm) was obtained from panicle emergence stage to anthesis stage at 11.64 which are critical reproductive stages. 
3rd Internode Girth (cm)
   
The third internode girth  steadily increased with harvests at the youngest stage of flag leaf stage  until  the oldest stage at physiological maturity.  The  3rd internode girth value of 16.8 cm  was lowest at flag leaf stage  and  highest (20.6)  at  physiological maturity.  However,  the 3rd internode girth values when plants were harvested at milk, soft dough, hard dough and physiological maturity did not significantly differ.  The highest percentage of 3rd internode girth measurement increase in cm  of 5.88 was recorded  during the milk stage harvest. The slight increases from the value noted at soft dough (3.0), hard dough (0.49),  and  physiological maturity (1.5)  stages explained why 3rd internode girth (cm) were comparable at this stages.    

6th internode girth (cm)
 The 6th internode girth (cm)  also increases with harvesting at the youngest stage of plant growth (flag leaf  stage)  until  the oldest (physiological maturity)  where significantly the highest value of 16.4 cm was obtained.   The smallest 6th internode girth of  13.9 cm was obtained at flag leaf harvest.  The highest 6th internode girth increase of 6.4 was noted between the hard dough stage and physiological maturity stage harvests.    From flag leaf stage, the 6th internode girth increased by 5.8  at boot stage harvest with added 1.4 and 2.7 during harvests at panicle emergence and anthesis.  An additional 5.9 gain in 6th internode girth was obtained during the post anthesis harvest and another 1.9 for milk stage harvest. 

9th internode girth (cm)
The 9th internode girth (cm) ranged from 12.2  for early harvest at  flag leaf stage to 15.9 when harvesting was done at the latest stage of physiological maturity.  The 9th internode girth (cm) of plants harvested during physiological maturity was significantly the biggest.  The highest increase in 9th internode girth of 6.3 percent was noted between panicle emergence and anthesis and another 5.5 between hard dough stage to physiological maturity.

Average internode girth (cm)
The average internode girth (cm)  range  from 14.3 cm for the harvest at  the youngest or flag leaf stage and 18.3 cm upon harvesting at physiological maturity with steady increases noted  when harvesting was done at all stages of plant growth.  The average internode girth (cm) at post physiological maturity was significantly the biggest.  The data further revealed a gain of 4.2  in the average internode girth (cm) if harvesting is done at  boot stage rather than at flag leaf stage and another increase in size  of internode on the average between post anthesis and milk stage. 

Yield Traits
Brix ()
 The brix   gradually increases with harvesting done at the youngest or flag leaf stage (5.4) until soft dough stage (15.1) , decreased up to physiological maturity then peaked (16.9) with harvesting at the oldest stage of post physiological maturity.  At this stage,  the brix  was significantly the highest.   Brix  increase of  29.6 was noted between flag leaf to boot stage and 21.6 between physiological and post physiological maturity.  The lowest percentage increase of 2.7 was recorded at soft dough stage.   It can be stated that harvesting when the plant is most mature or at post physiological maturity is the best in order to get the significantly highest brix  of 16.9.  According to Prasad, et al (2007) citing Bitzer et al (2006), for best ethanol production from sorghum the crop should be harvested when the sugar content is in the range of 15.5  16.5.  Almodares, et al (2007)  also reported that high brix value was obtained at physiological maturity which was also confirmed by this study. At physiological maturity, there is decreasing acidic invertase content while natural invertase increases, hence the high sucrose content.

Juice Yield (kL ha-1)
The juice yield (kL ha-1) steadily increases with harvesting done at flag leaf stage until the hard dough stage where   significantly  the highest value of 41.8 (kL ha-1) was noted. Lowest juice yield (22.3 kL ha-1) was obtained when plants were harvested at youngest stage (flag leaf stage).  The percentage increase in the juice yield (kL ha-1)  which is  23.6  was noted between the flagleaf stage and the boot stage and  lowest percent of  increase (1.8) between milk stage and soft dough stage.  Beyond the hard dough stage a reduction in juice yield (kL ha-1) was  noted (-18.7) up to post physiological maturity.

 Stem Fresh Weight (t ha-1)
Te stem fresh weight (t h-1)  increased from 42.7 t h-1  at flag leaf stage harvest to 78.8 t h-1  hard dough stage harevest, then declined considerably.   The  stem fresh weight of plants harvested at hard dough stage was significantly the highest among all other values obtained when harvesting was done at various stages of  plants growth.  The highest increase of 24.6  in stem fresh weight (t h-1)  was obtained when plants were harvested at  boot stage.  Harvesting beyond the  hard dough stage,  reduces the stem fresh weight (t ha-1) by 14.6  and another 7.9. reduction was  with harvest done during the post physiological stage of the plant.

Total Fresh Biomass (t ha-1)
 The total fresh biomass (t ha-1) at periodic stages of harvest corresponding the to the stages of plants growth ranged from 52.7g for harvest at flag leaf stage and the highest total fresh biomass weight of 95.0  (t ha-1)  was obtained when plants were harvested at hard dough stage, steadily increasing in the process.  The total fresh biomass (t h-1)  at hard dough stage was significantly the highest  among the  total fresh biomass (t ha-1) obtained  by harvesting the plants at ten different stages corresponding to the different growth stages of the sorghum plant.  The percentage increase in the total fresh biomass (t ha-1) from flag leaf stage boot stage was 22.0.   Harvesting the  sorghum beyond hard dough stage, that is, at physiological maturity, reduced the total fresh biomass (t ha-1) by 23.4   and  by an added  6.6   when harvesting was done during post physiological stage of the plant.

Sugar Yield (t ha-1)
Sugar yield (t ha-1) also increased with harvests from flag leaf stage (1.21 t h-1 ) to hard dough stage (6.04 t h-1) then steadily decreased thereafter.  Sugar yield at hard dough stage however did not significantly differed with those obtained at earlier stages of  plant growth, that is the milk stage and the soft dough stage.  In fact highest increase of 34.0 was noted in the sugar yield (t h-1) was noted between post anthesis and the milk stage and 4.86  between the  milk stage and the soft dough stage.  It seemed that harvesting between the milk stage to hard dough stage was best  for maximum  sugar yield.  However, because the increase was very slight between the soft dough and hard dough stages (0.8),  harvesting between milk and dough stages may already be considered.  Choosing the soft dough stage as the best harvest stage for  getting a reasonable sugar yield (t ha-1) was based on the fact that a 4.86 increase would mean a substantial returns whereas a 0.8 increase is not enough to risk the plant of exposure  to inclement weather for an extended period of time in the field.  The  sugar yield (t ha-1)  increased considerably before the soft dough stage  from flag leaf to boot stage, the increase was 59.4  and another 36.3 percent was added at panicle emergence stage.  An additional 26.6  gain in sugar yield (t ha-1)  was recorded at anthesis, 29.1 at post anthesis and 34.0  during the milk stage.  Harvesting sorghum plant beyond the hard dough stage result in a reduction of  sugar yield (t ha-1) by 21.84  when done during the physiological maturity of the crop and another 7.6 percent when harvesting it at post physiological maturity. 

Panicle Fresh Weight (t ha-1)
There was no panicle fresh weight (t ha-1) data before anthesis as this is no longer a vegetative growth trait but one associated with the  reproductive growth.  The data show increasing  fresh panicle weight (t ha-1) from anthesis until soft dough stage and a decline in value when harvesting was done beyond this stage.   The panicle fresh weight of  5.67  (t ha-1)  obtained during harvest at soft dough stage was significantly the highest among the other harvest periods.  The trend in panicle fresh weight  (t ha-1)  increase with different harvest periods with  63.4 at post anthesis stage,  30.5 at milk stage and 25.3 at soft dough stage.

Leaf Dry Weight (t ha-1)
The leaf dry weight (t ha-1) data show increasing value from flag leaf stage (2.3 t ha-1) until the soft dough stage (3.65 t h-1).    However, the leaf dry weight at  soft dough stage did not significantly differed from those obtained at earlier stages of post anthesis (3.58 t h-1),  post anthesis (3.63 t h-1),   or at later hard dough stage (3.64 t h-1).  Highest leaf weight increase of 26.5 was noted between flag leaf and boot stages and  harvesting beyond the hard dough stage steadily decreases the leaf dry weight until the post physiological maturity with a magnitude decrease ranging from 0.27 to 2.9. 
Panicle Dry Weight (t ha-1)
    
Panicle dry weight (t ha-1) increases  with  harvesting done at increasing maturity of the sorghum plant from anthesis (1.01 t h-1 ) to post physiological maturity where  significantly the highest panicle dry weight of  2.64 t h-1 was  recorded.  The increase in panicle dry weight (t ha-1) from anthesis to post anthesis was 35.6  from a base data of 1.01 t ha-1.  From post anthesis a 39.4  gain in panicle dry weight (t ha-1) was obtained with harvesting during the milk stage of the sorghum plant.  Another 16.8  was realized with harvest during the soft dough stage and a reduction of  7.6 percent  was recoded when harvest was done at hard dough stage.  However, another gain in panicle dry weight (t ha-1) of 19.9 was noted upon harvesting at physiological maturity and  an additional 6.9 with harvest at post physiological maturity.  During this stage the maximum panicle dry weight  of 2.64 t ha-1 was  significantly the highest among the panicle dry weights obtained.

Stem dry weight (t ha-1)
Stem dry weight (t ha-1) periodically increased from 4.85 at flag leaf harvest to 14.97t ha-1 for  late harvest at post physiological maturity where significantly the highest stem dry weight was obtained.   The stem dry weight (t ha-1)  value was 4.81 at flag leaf  which increased by 56.3 at boot stage and an added 17.3   at panicle emergence.  Another 19.0 gain in stem dry weight (t ha-1) was realized when harvesting was done during the anthesis stage and an additional of 11.7 , 2.5, 8.2 , 3.3  and .53 when harvesting periods were delayed during post anthesis, milk stage, soft dough stage, and dough stage, and physiological maturity stages, respectively.

Total dry biomass (t ha-1)
The total dry biomass (t ha-1)  also considerably increases  from flag leaf stage harvest (7.15 t ha-1) until post physiological stage, where significantly the highest total dry biomass of 17.45 t ha-1 was obtained.  Slight decrease in total dry biomass  was obtained at physiological maturity.  The total biomass (t ha-1) increased by 46.7 when harvesting was done at boot stage,  another 14.9 at panicle emergence harvest, and  another 16.3 when harvesting was done at anthesis with an additional 9.9 when done at post anthesis.  A slight increase in total dry biomass (t ha-1) , that is, by 2.2 was realized when harvesting was done at milk stage, but an added 6.54 percent was noted when harvesting was done at soft dough stage and another 2.4 when done at hard dough stage.  A reduction of 7.5  in total dry biomass (t ha-1)  was realized when plants were harvested at physiological maturity.

Grain yield (t ha-1)
Grain yield  data which was the lowest at  the beginning of the reproductive period of anthesis ( 0.044t ha-1) steadily increased until physiological maturity (0.230t ha-1) and declined  drastically at post physiological maturity registering less than half of the harvest (0.067t ha-1).   This data show that harvesting at physiological maturity was the best stage to realize the maximum  grain yield (t ha-1) of  sorghum.  The value obtained by harvesting at this stage was significantly the highest among the grain yields (t ha-1) obtained from other harvesting periods.  The incremental increase  in grain yield (t ha-1) was 2.3 from anthesis to post anthesis harvests,  48.9  for milk stage harvest,  31.3 for soft dough stage harvest,  27.3 percent for hard dough stage harvest and which more than doubled (105.4)  during the physiological stage harvest and which reduced by 70.09 during the post physiological stage harvest. 

Harvest index (Grain) ()
The trend in the harvest index (grain )  data  follows that of the grain yield in that  it increases steadily from milk stage (0.427 grain )  to 1.185 (grain ) at physiological maturity after decreasing from anthesis to post anthesis.  Harvesting was initiated at anthesis stage with 0.321 grain   harvest index.  This value  decreased by 7.2 when harvesting was done during post anthesis stage.  Another 43.3 gain was realized with a later harvest period which was the milk stage of the plant with additional 23.0  when harvesting was done later at soft dough stage with another 25.7 gained when harvesting was made during the hard dough stage.  The highest increase of 79.3 in harvest index grain ()    was obtained when harvesting the plant at physiological maturity at a value of 1.185.   This value was significantly the highest among the harvest index (grain) () obtained from various harvest periods, so harvesting at physiological maturity was considered the best stage for harvest index (grain) ().

Harvest index sugar) ()
The final data was the harvest index (sugar) () which shows that of the ten harvest stages, the harvest index (sugar)()  steadily increases from flag leaf stage until a maximum of  36.6 harvest index (sugar ) was obtained at milk stage of sorghum growth.  It was also noted that this harvest index for sugar did not vary significantly with those obtained at soft and hard dough stages.  Just the same,  harvesting at milk stage is already the best for  harvest index (sugar ) because prolonged harvesting already resulted in reduction in harvest index (sugar ).  Beyond the milk stage where the highest incremental increase of 30.7 percent was obtained,  the harvest index for sugar considerably decreased until eventually  only 25.2  harvest index (sugar ) was obtained.   By increment,  the harvest index (sugar)() at flag leaf stage was 16.9  which increased by 9.5  when harvesting was done at boot stage and an additional 20.0 when harvesting at panicle emergence and another 9.5 when harvesting at anthesis and 15. at post anthesis.  Highest increase of 36.7 was realized during the milk stage harvest with a 1.4 reduction during the subsequent harvests at soft and hard dough stages.  Another 15.2 reduction in harvest index (sugar)() was realized when delaying the harvest at later stage of physiological maturity and still another decrease of 16.6 with further  harvest delay at post physiological maturity. 


Physiological Traits
Fo
Changes in plant Fo  is highly variable as indicated by  high Fo at flag leaf,  then declined until panicle emergence,  then increase again at anthesis slightly lowered at post anthesis then slightly increased before it hit the lowest value of 233.0 at soft dough stage.  Highest Fo was obtained at anthesis stage (373.0)  but this value did not significantly differed from those obtained at  flag leaf  stage (272.0),  milk stage (272.0)  and post anthesis stage (270.0). 

Fm
As to the amount of Fm,   it slightly increased at  boot stage,  then reduced at panicle emergence, increased at anthesis to post anthesis stage then continuously declined as the plant matures to soft dough stage.  Fm was significantly highest at highest at boot stage (1178).  Lowest Fm (339)  was obtained at soft dough stage harvest of the plant.  The result indicate that as early as boot stage, sorghum plant had accumulated its maximum Fm and whatever increase noted after flowering is slight enough to cause much difference in the value of this physiological trait.
    
The ratio of Fv to Fm  generally decreased  as the plant matures to soft dough stage.  FvFm was highest (0.786 ) during boot stage and decreased until anthesis.  The FVFm value at boot stage was significantly the highest among the ratios of FV to Fm obtained at all other stages of plant growth.  There was slight increase in the ratio of FVFm at post anthesis stage after which it declined until it reaches the lowest value of 0.313 at soft dough stage.    

Leaf temperature 0C
The leaf temperature of sorghum plant generally decreased as the plant grows older except for the slight increase noted at panicle emergence stage. Highest temperature of  30.30C was noted at the youngest stage of the plant (flag leaf stage) which was significantly the highest among the values obtained at various stages of plants growth except at panicle emergence stage where the leaf temperature 0f 29.40C was significantly similar.  Leaf temperature (10.20C)  was lowest when the plant was oldest (soft dough stage).

Stem temperature
The data trend in stem temperature 0C was similar to that of leaf temperature0C.  The highest stem temperature  of  28.20C was obtained  at the youngest stage of the sorghum plant, that is, at flag leaf stage and this temperature was statistically similar with  the value obtained at panicle emergence (28.70C ).   Stem temperature steadily decreased from panicle emergence until soft dough stage where the lowest stem temperature of 10.90C was recorded. 

Chlorophyll content (SPAD value)
The chlorophyll content of sorghum plant increased when harvesting was done at the youngest stage of the plant (flag leaf stage)  and peaked  at panicle emergence harvest with a value of 48.6.  At this stage,  there must be more chlorophyll to maximize the production of  starch in preparation for the shift to reproductive growth.  The  cholorophyll content  at panicle emergence was significantly the highest among the values obtained when sorghum plants are at various stages of growth.  The cholorophyll content  value continuously decreased as the plant progresses in its reproductive stages until the soft dough stage where  the lowest SPAD value  of 38.3  was obtained. 
Biochemical Traits

Extractable juice ()
There was an increasing and decreasing   extractable juice as plant moves from one growth stage to another with the highest value of 54.5 obtained at panicle emergence and the lowest value of 41.8 percent when the plant was oldest (post physiological maturity).  The  extractable juice was statistically similar indicating not much difference in the amount obtained from the youngest (flag leaf stage) to the older stage of the plant (physiological maturity).  The  extractable juice at post physiological maturity was significantly the lowest.

Juice pH 
A slightly  erratic trend in the juice pH was noted in the data.  The juice pH slightly declined when plants were harvested at boot stage, then slightly increased at panicle emergence harvest, then decreased continuously until hard dough stage harvest then peaked when plants were harvested at physiological maturity.  The juice pH at this stage was 5.5 and significantly the highest among the measurements done at all other stages of growth.  The lowest juice pH of 4.70 was noted during late harvest when the plants are in their post physiological maturity stage.  This means that fermentation had already taken place hence the juice was already acidic.

Total sugars ( wv)
 The total sugars (wv)  of sorghum plant continuously increased as harvesting was delayed with lowest value of  4.66  noted among plants harvested at flag leaf stage  and the highest, that is, 23.7 obtained  at a later harvest, that is, hard dough stage of the plant.  A decline in the  total sugars  was observed when harvesting was done at physiological and post physiological maturity stage of the sorghum plant.  The total sugars obtained at hard dough stage was significantly the highest indicating that this stage was the best stage to harvest for total sugar (wv)  content.

Reducing sugars (vw) 
The amount of reducing sugars (vw)  also increased when harvesting was done early (flag leaf stage)  until post anthesis stage where the highest amount of reducing sugar was obtained which is 12.0.   This amount though although significantly the highest, did not differ significantly with the reducing sugars (vw) recorded when plants were harvested at milk stage (11.84)  and those harvested at hard dough stage (11.91).  Harvesting beyond physiological maturity resulted in reduced amount of reducing sugar  with the lowest of 2.26 obtained when harvesting was done  when plant was oldest at post physiological maturity.
Non-reducing sugar(wv)
    
The amount of non-reducing sugar (wv) steadily increases with various stages of  plant growth, peaked at  hard dough stage and steadily decreased until the post physiological stage.  The highest amount of non-reducing sugar  (11.8)  was obtained when plants were harvested at hard dough stage.  This value was significantly the highest among the non-reducing sugars obtained from harvesting sorghum at various stages of plant growth.  The lowest amount 1.86 was noted when plants were harvested at  the earliest stage of  plant growth which is at flag leaf stage.

Starch (ug g-1)
The starch content of sorghum plant ranged from 7.8 ugg  which was obtained among plants harvested at boot stage and the highest of 53.4 ug g-1  was obtained when harvesting was done at milk stage of the plant.  At this stage, plants had finished rapid vegetative growth and begin the reproductive stage,  hence plant sugars are converted to starch and stored in the grain which explains the highest starch content at this stage. The starch content at this stage was significantly the highest compared to the values for harvests in all other stages of the sorghum plant.  The data further show an increasing trend in the starch content ug g-1  as harvests progresses from the young stage of plant growth until milk stage.  Beyond this stage the starch content considerably declined but  increased substantially at the last harvest  when plants are almost senescent at post physiological maturity.

Juice purity
The percentage juice purity increased with early harvest  (flag leaf stage)  until panicle emergence stage, then slightly decreased until milking stage.  Juice purity then increased  to 49.7  when harvesting was done at soft dough stage and almost doubled (81.3) at hard dough stage.  The juice purity at this stage was significantly the highest.  The juice purity decreases with later harvest until the lowest of 12.52 was obtained when plants were harvested at  post physiological stage.    

Plant height differed significantly among the genotypes in both the years (2008 and 2009). In 2008, genotype Dale recorded highest plant height (360.0 cm), followed by M81E (346.4 cm) and lowest being Top76-6 (328.0 cm) (Table 1). However during 2009, M81E recorded the maximum plant height (373.6), followed by Keller (369.7) and Dale (366.9). Foliar application of chemical sterilants and deheading showed significant difference in both the years (Table 1 and 2). In 2008, deheading had the lowest plant height compared to chemical sterilants and deheading (Table 5). Similarly, the maximum height was recorded in t-Cinnamic acid (372.1 cm) and the lowest in deheading (329.0 cm) (Table 6). Furthermore, interaction of genotypes and treatments was significant during the years, 2008 and 2009 (Table 1 and 2).

The data in Table 1 show higher plant stature for all treatments and genotypes across the years, except for the genotype Top 76-6, where increase in plant height was only noted in the t-Cinnamic acid treatment. Compared with the control, the Keller genotype was responsive to sterilent treatments as indicated by increase in plant height for both year 2008 and 2009.  For the year 2008, 8.6  increase in height was noted with t-Cinnamic acid treatment  and 3.7 for p-Coumaric acid treatment.  For year 2009,  3.05  increase in height was noted for t-Coumaric acid treatment and only 0.53 for t-Cinnamic acid treatment.  Dale genotype recorded 1.5 increase in plant height  when treated with t-Cinnamic acid only in 2008. M8IE genotype  showed 1.46 increase in height in 2008 when treated with p-Coumaric acid.   Top 76-6 had height increase of 12.5  with t- Cinnamic acid treatment compared with the control  during 2009.   Not one among the four sorghum genotypes tested responded to deheading  in terms of height increase.

Plant height has several implications it has the potential for high biomass numbers, as the leaves and stalk and grains develop more when they are exposed to sunlight, as these plants adapt to the existing conditions to be more efficient in receiving solar radiation (Hunter  Anderson, 1997). In addition, a taller plant has more internodes, and as an added effect, the plant has the higher chance for the girth of the stem to grow further. Chemical treatments are a good way to increase height, but it does not always work with all genotypes. The Keller genotype is best when chemical sterilants are used in both the short and long term, while the M81E works well when the treatments are done at a later date. The Top76-6 genotype, a fast maturing example, is not recommended for long-term planting, unless treated with t-Cinnamic acid.

Number of leaves
The Number of leaves was differed significantly among the genotypes in both the years (2008 and 2009). In 2008, genotype Top76-6 had the highest number of leaves (16.4), followed by M81E (15.6) and the lowest being Keller (11.7) (Table 3). However, M81E produced more number of leaves (12.4), followed by Keller (11.7) and Dale (11.6) in 2009 (Table 4). Foliar application of chemical sterilants and deheading did not show significant difference for number of leaves in 2008 (Table 1), whereas there was significant difference in 2009 (Table 2). Deheading treatment had the maximum number of leaves (12.5) and the minimum was found in p-Coumaric acid (11.1) (Table 6). The interaction between genotype and treatment was found to be non-significant in both the years (2008 and 2009) (Table 1 and 2).

There has been a decrease of plant leaves in all genotypes after two years. The Top76-6 genotype lost the most number of leaves, while the Keller genotype lost none of its leaves in the span of two years. The t-cinnamic acid treatment caused the highest retention of leaves in 2008, with 8.8. In 2009, deheading treatments kept the highest number of leaves in the plants, with 4.16 retention. A sweet sorghum genotype or cultivar will have the number of leaves dependent on the length of the vegetative period, and its leaves midrib colour can be an indicator of the juiciness of the plants stalk, as well as having fewer leaves than forage or grain sorghum (Hunter  Anderson, 1997).

Number of Internodes
The number of internodes per plant changed with a generally downward trend during the two years. The highest number in 2008 was the Top76-6 genotype, with 16.4 (Table 3). Using the Top 76-6 genotype as a basis, there is a significant change in the Keller and Dale genotypes and there is no major difference in the M81E genotype. During 2009, The highest number of belonged to M81E with a 14.1 (Table 4), with a significant difference over the other three genotypes (Table 4), whose means are more or less the same, with an overlap. During the treatments, p-Coumaric Acid has the highest number of internodes (14.8) and the minimum is deheading (14.2) (Table 5). In 2009, it was t-Cinnamic acid that has the highest number (13.4), while deheading is still the lowest (12.8) (Table 6), it is noted that the means are all very close to each and there is no significant changes (Tables 5 and 6). The treatment by chemical sterilants and deheading in 2008 did not show any significant difference, as well as the genotype-treatment interaction (Table 1). In 2009, it was the genotype-treatment interaction that showed significant difference, everything else was constant (Table 2).
  
 All genotypes showed a loss of internodes per plant in the span of two years, from 2008-2009 (Tables 3 and 4). The treatment that showed the highest loss of the number of internodes was the deheading treatment, which showed a -2.06 retention of internodes per plant. The deheading treatment was below the control figures. In 2009, the p-Coumaric acid treatment showed the least internodes per plant, again its figure below the control figures with a  -7.5 retention.  (Tables 5 and 6). The number of internodes per stalk influence the thickness of the stalk (Hunter  Anderson, 1997). In increasing the plants internodes in both the short and long terms, chemical treatments barely have an advantage over letting the plant grow on its own. The advantages are not worth the costs.

The issue of tariffs and trade in the history of the United States offers detailed information on tariff policy formation throughout the history of America as well as reveal the continued essence of the subject in an era of free trade (Northrup  Turney, 2003). Issues involving trade, historically, have played a key role in the making of policy in the Unite States. The tariff for instance has been seen to influence decisions that has led even to major wars. The 1816 tariff passage for example, was intended to assist in the collection of revenue for the U.S Treasury after the military costs of the 1812 war drained it. Governments institute tariffs on imported goods to guard industry within their borders.

In 1897 for instance, an American investor by the name Baruch Mannes invested in the American Sugar Refining Company. A tariff barring foreign sugar had made the enterprise quite popular at that particular time. A Senate bill meant to lower the duty, Baruch thought, would not go through. When Congress eventually defeated the measure, Baruch realized profit was 60,000 on a 300 investment. The sugar industry was also seen to tie countries to the United States. The sugar industry for instance tied Hawaii to the U.S and in 1875 the government of Hawaii secured reciprocity treaty that allowed the entry of tariff free island sugar to the U.S as long as Hawaii did not transfer territorial or economic rights to a third party. The U.S later long revoked the agreement. Consequently, the threat of tariffs to the sugar industry saw the islands plunged into economic crisis.

Historically, according to Krueger (1996), Section 22 quotas on sugar imports and products containing sugar were used not only to protect the United States sugar producers but also give special treatment to identified foreign suppliers. Under the most recent trade restrictions, the domestic production of sugar and beet has been seen to steadily increase since 1980. Soaring domestic sugar prices are also seen as a contribution to the use of high fructose corn sweeteners that increased from less than a fourth of the total caloric sweetener consumption in the period between 1979 and 1981 to almost a half in 1989 to 1991. In 1989, Australia challenged the United States import quotas, under the GATT rules. The reason behind it was that the domestic supply controls were not yet in place at that time. In a measure to settle the GATT dispute, a two-tier tariff regime replaced the import quotas. A limited quantity of imports under this regime, otherwise known as tariff-rate quotas, entered at a low rate of 0.01lb. Any potential additional imports carried with them an over-quota tariff of up to 80 per cent more, which is equivalent to 0.18lb).

While the regime of the two-tier sugar tariff facilitates the access of the United States market in response to the conditions of the world market, not only has the over-quota tariffs been felt as prohibitive, but the two-tier tariffs and the TRQ have also had trade restrictive effects which have been viewed similar to the previous quota system. Imports of sugar have consequently been reduced to less than 2 million metric tons in 1989-1991, from over 3 million metric tons in 1980, in a bid to protect domestic producers. This was just under 15 per cent of the domestic production. Mexico just provided a small fraction of U.S both sugar imports and sugar containing products. Of all the sugar containing products that were imported, Canada provided over a fourth of it.
   
As far back as 1789, the United States government has been involved, directly, in the sugar market which was part of its national policy. A variety of mechanisms have since been used as the U.S sugar policy instruments. They include support prices, subsidies, domestic acreage restrictions, foreign import quotas, and import tariffs Marks (1993). Three major periods characterize the history of the U.S sugar policy. Between 1789 and 1890, tariffs were introduced and imposed on sugar which was as a way of generating revenue for the government. Initially, there was no domestic production to be protected and this saw the growth of domestic production over the years. In 1980, the United States Treasury scrapped the tariffs and this resulted to low-priced world sugar. As a result of the sugar influx, refiners and processors of the U.S received a bounty equivalent to two cents per pound of produced sugar. A tariff of 40 per cent was hence introduced on all imports of sugar in lieu of the bounty, in 1894.

In the 1930s the U.S sugar policy commenced. It was in response to the rapid expansion of the production of world sugar that had driven prices to an extremely low level. It was not sufficient for the ad valorem tariff to support the industry any more. This saw the passing of the sugar Act in 1934. The sugar act hence was able to establish the sugar policy instruments of import quotas so as to not only restrict supply but also to support domestic prices.
   
Government tariffs like the tariffs and the quotas persist as a result of the basic sugar economic fundamentals, as a commodity (Schmitz  Spreen, 2002). 
Some of these fundamentals include
Inelastic supply and demand schedules
Existence of substitutes like the HFCS
Scarcity of processors and refiners
The sweetener industrys economic importance in terms of payroll, jobs, and both indirect and direct economic impact in refining and producing regions.
At the present, sugar policies not only in the United States but also in the rest of the world are in one way or the other affected by the process of the political-decision. In establishing sugar policy, the importance of political power varies from country to country, as opposed to fundamental economic considerations. The combination of inelastic supply, inelastic demand, and the fungible nature of sugar, has been seen to lead to the instability of prices because of the changes in supply, demand, or even both. Intervention of the government to control the volatility of price is made easier due to the small number of control nodes, who are the refiners and processors (Schmitz  Spreen, 2002).

As observed in the diagram above, the United States sugar policy is facilitated in the context of further assumption on the trends affecting the consumptions and production of United States sugar. They include assumptions about crop prices substituting sugarcane and sugar beets and also about technology. The U.S sugar projections are further influenced by factors for instance affecting the demand and supply of Mexican sugar. According to Schmitz  Spreen (2002), sugar baseline presumed the world price for sugar would average approximately U.S 7 cents per pound throughout the year 2003, then in 2004 increase to U.S 8 cents per pound, and finally in 2004 at the remainder of the projections average at U.S 8 cents per pounds.

The United States sugar processors were anticipated to use the sugar loan so as to keep the prices of sugar at or even above U.S 19.68 cents per pound. Trend improvements in the sugar beet and sugar cane harvesting, processing and growing were all expected to continue throughout the projection period.  In addition, in 2003, sugar cane producing states average sugar yield was projected at 4.61 tons per acre and was expected to grow yearly at 0.6 per cent reaching 4.61 tons per acre by the year 2012. In 2003, the U.S sugar beet yield was predicted to reach 3.14 tons per acre, expected to yearly grow at 0.7 per cent to reach 3.35 tons per acre in 2012.    

According to Schmitz  Spreen (2000), the United States sugar policy is already in a major crisis. For instance, producer sugar prices have been seen to drop drastically. Whole sale retail sugar prices for example range from around U.S. 19 cents per pound. This is seen as a 22 year low in nominal provisions, and most likely a historic low in real terms. In the past several years, major U.S commodity prices were sent to push acreage from other crops into sugar cane and sugar beet.

   
Pressures for reform of sugar policy have been mounting despite the resilience to change which has been displayed by the OECD sugar regimes for a long time now (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2007). They include the regional trade agreements, domestic initiatives, and the current WTO Doha round. The agenda is geared towards liberalization of agricultural trade, which includes that of sugar. Even as the multilateral negotiations are going on, there are regional trades as well as unilateral initiatives that have been seen to have potential implications for the reform of the sugar policy in the United States.

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development adds that for the United States, the prospect of an integrated sugar market with Mexico from the year 2008 has repercussions for the current United States sugar program sustainability. In addition to this, the United States is in the process of discussing a number of free and bilateral trade agreements. This will include some 28 countries that are not only significant sugar exporters but also who have duty free access to the United States market. IN the recent USAustralia Free Trade Agreement for instance, sugar was seen to be excluded from coverage of the agreement. In yet another agreement with the U.S, commonly known as Central American Free Trade Agreement facilitates a limited additional access to imports of sugar from the Central American countries, usually after an extended transition period. In as much as the impacts of these sugar trade agreements have been limited to date, it still may be difficult to continue to limit sugar coverage in some regional agreements of the future, an example being the Free Trade of the Americas Agreement which is being discussed with countries of Central and South America.

Increased access of the market as a result of the United States liberalization of sugar trade would imply changes in the United States sugar program (Sugar and Sweetener Situation and Outlook Year book, 2001). Assuming the present loan rate was retained, it would subsequently have to be reduces so as to prevent large forfeitures to the United States Department of Agriculture. According to baseline analysis, a sugar loan rate of say 14 cents per pound, which is less 4 cents in the current loan rate, would be essential if preventing sugar forfeitures to the CCC are to be successful, if the United States minimum sugar import obligation were to increase by 50 per cent.

The tightening of the margin between the United States and the world prices may eventually end up limiting high-tier tariff imports from countries like Mexico and at the same time exert pressure on high-cost suppliers of quota. In order to make the sugar TRQ practical, it would call for the modification of the current system of allocating shares on the basis of historical trade patterns. This would see the elimination of those countries that the world U.S price margins appear to be no longer sufficiently wide to facilitate viable exports. Quite a large portion of United States supplies would consequently be sourced from low cost producers like Australia, Brazil and even Mexico.